Ukraine’s lands as an important factor of the development of trade and geopolitical contacts according to the data from arabographic written sources

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UKRAINE'S LANDS AS AN IMPORTANT FACTOR OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF TRADE AND GEOPOLITICAL CONTACTS ACCORDING TO THE DATA FROM ARABOGRAPHIC WRITTEN SOURCES

Ferhad TURANLY

PhD hab. (History), Professor of Chair for General & Slavic Linguistics of Humanities Department of National University “Kyiv Mohyla Academy”, Head Department of Oriental Studies, Faculty of International Relations, National Aviation University, Kyiv, Ukraine

Abstract. The purpose of the study: to analyze the historical conditions of rising and development of trade routes, as well as the geopolitical processes during 16th - 18th centuries between the countries of the historic and geographic areal from the Baltic Sea to the Black Sea, which are referred to in Arabic and Turkish-Ottoman written sources. Implementation of the set up purpose has been achieved by observing the general theoretical and methodical principles of Historiography and Source Studies aimed at provision of defining the specific features of that development. The Methodology of the study is based on the principles of providing the historism, scientific objectivity, a specific historical systematicity, and also on the interdisciplinarity principle and the principle of identification of the authenticity and informational value of the data andfacts having been found. While making this study there were applied general historical methods of making a historiographical, terminological, typological and textologic analyses, and also the comparativistics method. The academic novelty of the study is perception of the Historiosophy of Ukraine's History in the context of intercivilisational relations demonstrated by setting up in the said historiogeographical area of a great trade route, and primarily the socio-economic and geopolitical processes having taken place in Ukraine during the above said time, as well as that of the military and political situation all along during that period in the Northern Black-Sea Area and the situation in the Crimean Ulus, though the author's interpretation of the historic events while taking into consideration the data available in Arabic and Turkish-Ottoman written sources.

The Conclusions. Studies of Arabic, and particularly Turkish-Osman written sources give us grounds to state that in the Medieval times the port cities of Yumne and Constantinople were important trade markets, particularly the traded goods were transported along the rivers of Dnieper and Danube. But the city managed to keep its importance in the system of the international trading. The importance of Ukraine's geopolitical situation within the system of international trade relations was accounted for by the fact, that through its territory trade route were set which provided stable and long-lasting economic relations between the most influential ports and countries of Eastern Europe northwards of the Black Sea. The Baltic cultural and historic region that included the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, was connected with the Black Sea through the territory of Ukraine.

The economic crisis, which lasted in the Ottoman Empire till the beginning of the 17th century, in the Northern Black-Sea Area new political forces emerged which before that had been in the vassal dependence and used by the great states within their own contact zones for a close economic, cultural and military cooperation of the border countries. Those borderforces were, from one side - the Crimean Khanate, and from the other side - The Zaporozhian Host. Our study has shown that the Ukrainian problem has always been an actual item in the international policy of the High Porte.

We have studied the original manuscript "A Letter-Order from Turkish Sultan Andulkhamid І to the Kadee of the city of Izmir". The data we have obtained from this document proved the economic relations between the countries located within the above said historicogeographical areals to have been long-lasting, and there have also been identified conditions, in which the trade relations between these countries had been developing, and the routes having been set up through the territory of Ukraine.

Key words: the Scandinavian impact, a trade route, Arabographical sources, the Dnieper, the Black Sea, Lviv, Istanbul.

ЗЕМЛІ УКРАЇНИ ЯК ВАЖЛИВИЙ ЧИННИК У РОЗВИТКУ ТОРГІВЕЛЬНИХ І ГЕОПОЛІТИЧНИХ КОНТАКТІВ ЗА ДАНИМИ АРАБОГРАФІЧНИХ ПИСЕМНИХ ДЖЕРЕЛ

Фергад ТУРАНЛИ

доктор історичних наук, професор кафедри загального і слов'янського мовознавства факультету гуманітарних наук Національного університету “Києво-Могилянська академія”, завідувач кафедри сходознавства факультету міжнародних відносин Національного авіаційного університету, м. Київ, Україна

Анотація. Мета дослідження - проаналізувати історичні умови виникнення та розвитку торгівельних шляхів, також геополітичні процесі між країнами Балтійсько-Чорноморського історично-географічного ареалу XVI-XVIII ст., що згадуються в арабських та османсько-турецьких писемних джерелах. Досягнення поставленої мети реалізується на основі дотримання загальних теоретико-методологічних засад історіографії та джерелознавства з метою забезпечити виокремлення характерних ознак цього розвитку. Методологія дослідження базується на принципах історизму, наукової об'єктивності, конкретно-історичної системності, а також на принципах міждисциплінарності, встановлення достовірності та інформаційної цінності виявлених відомостей і фактів. При проведенні цього дослідження були застосовані загальноісторичні методи історіографічного, термінологічного, типологічного, текстологічного аналізів, метод компаративістики. Наукова новизна дослідження полягає в осмисленні історіософії історії України в контексті міжцивілізаційних відносин, про що свідчили створення великого торговельного шляху в зазначеному історично-географічному просторі, соціально-економічні й геополітичні процеси, які відбувалися на теренах України в окреслений час, а також військово-політична ситуація впродовж цього періоду у Північному Причорномор'ї та становище Кримського улусу; в авторському інтерпретуванні історичних подій з урахуванням наявних відомостей з арабських і османсько-турецьких писемних джерел.

Висновки. Дослідження арабських, зосібна османсько-турецьких писемних джерел дає підставу говорити про те, що у Середньовічі портове місто Юмне і Константинополь були важливими ринками для торгівлі, зокрема товари для продажу транспортувалися по Дніпру і Дунаю. Але в той же час місто зберегло своє значення в системі міжнародної торгівлі. Важливість геополітичного становища України в системі міжнародних торговельних зв'язків досліджуваного періоду визначалася тим, що через її території пролягали торговельні шляхи, які забезпечували тривалість і стабільність економічних відносин між визначними портами та країнами Східної Європи на північ від Чорного моря. Балтійський культурно-історичний регіон, до якого входила Річ Посполита, був з'єднаний із Чорним морем через територію України.

Внаслідок економічної кризи, що тривала в Османській імперії до початку XVII ст., у Північному Причорномор'ї виникли нові політичні сили, які раніше перебували у васальній залежності та використовувалися великими державами у межах їхніх власних контактних зон для тісної економічної, культурної та військової взаємодії прикордонних країн. Такими силами були, з одного боку, Кримське ханство, а з іншого боку - Військо Запорозьке. Наше дослідження свідчить про те, що українське питання завжди було актуальним у міжнародній політиці Високої Порти.

Досліджений нами оригінальний рукописний документ за назвою "Лист-наказ від турецького султана Абдульхаміда І до каді м. Ізміра”. Отримані відомості з цього документа свідчать про тривалість економічних відносин, а також умови здійснення торговельних відносин між країнами названих історико-географічних ареалів, шляхи, які простягалися через терени України.

Ключові слова:скандинавський вплив, торговельний шлях, арабографічні джерела, Дніпро, Чорне море, Львів, Стамбул.

The Problem Statement. The study we have made is relevant, as Arabic and Turkish- Ottoman written sources are important to study historical conditions of the emergence and development of trade relations between the countries of the Baltic and Black-Sea Region. When considering this problem, one should also underline the impact of the Scandinavian countries, particularly those of Norway, on the intercivilisational relations in the North, Central and East Europe and in the Middle East. For example, this factor accounted for setting up a trade route from Constantinople to the Western Baltic-Sea port city of Wolina (Jumne/Jum), that existed in the said period of time of the Medieval history and known as “The route from the Varangians to the Greeks”, as it is mentioned by Omelian Pritsak on the ground of the data from Arabic written sources (Pritsak, 1997, 2003, pp. 488-496).

Analysis of the Sources and Recent Academic Studies. The problem of academic studies of related to the historical conditions and development of trade relations was considered in fundamental studies carried out by the following national and foreign scholars: O. Pritsak - “Origin of Rus'” (1997, 2003), H. inalcik - “An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300 - 1914” (1994), V Beilis - “Al-Idrisi about the ports on the Black Seas and connections between them” (1988), M. Urekli - “Kirim Hanlginin Kurlu§u ve Osmanli Himayesinde Yukseli§i (1441 - 1569)” (1989), Ya. Kalakura - “The state-formation activity of Bohdan Khmelnytsky: the Ukrainian Historiography” (1996), V. Kriukov - “Al-Khuvarizmi about “Sarmatia as the land of the Burjans” and its country-neighbours” (2009), О. Mavrina - “Emergence of the Crimean Khanate in the context of the political situation in East Europe between the end of the 14th century and the beginning of the 15th century” (2004), V. Brekhunenko - “Cosacks on the Steppe Border of Europe”: the typology of the Cosack communities for the period of the 16th century - the gist half if the 17th century” (2011), F Turanly - “The military cooperation between the Crimean Khanate and the Zaporozhian Host in the second quarter of the 17th century” (2019), F. Turanly - “Written Documents on the Black Sea Diplomacy Vector of Hetman Bohdan Khmelnytsky” (2019), F. Turanly - “The Cossack period in Ukraine's history in Ottoman Turkish written sources (the second half of the 16th - the first quarter of the 18th century)”, (2016), Y. Ozturk - “Ozu'denTuna'ya: Kazaklar-1” (2004), V. Stanislavsky - “Participation of merchants in the dissemination of information and transportation of the diplomatic dispatches between Russia, Ukraine and Turkey at the beginning of the 18th century” (2016) and some other ones.

The Purpose of the Publication. To analyse the data, which we have found in the studied Arabographical written sources, about the historical conditions of the origination and development of trade relations, particular also that concerning the political relations, between the countries of the Baltic and Black-Sea historiographical areal; as well as the socio-political, economic and geopolitical processes that took place on the territory of Ukraine from the second half of the 16th century and the 18th century, and also the military-political situation during the said period of time in the North Black-Sea Area and the situation of the Crimean Ulus.

The Statement of the Basic Material. It should be noted here that importance of the geopolitical situation in Ukraine for the system of the international trade relations of that time was accounted by the fact, that its territory provided continuous and stable economic relations between the High Porte and East-European countries located northwards of the Black Sea. The Baltic cultural and historical region that included the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was a connection with the Black Sea through the territory of Ukraine. However, river trade routes provided the economic connection of the Upper-Dnieper Area with the Baltic countries, as well as with the lands in the Middle- and Lower-Dnieper Areas, so the trade route from Constantinople to Jumne originated resulting from the3 activities of the Vikings, and that route connected the Baltic Sea with the Black Sea and promoted to an intensive development of the economic, political and cultural relations between the above said continental areas. This kind of the development of historic events is proved by Arabic and Turkish written documents, which are of much importance for studying the historical relations between the Scandinavian countries, particularly those of Norway, Ukraine and Turkey.

The Ukrainian scholar Yaroslav Kalakura did prove in his study that from the 16th century to the 18th century there was a historical period, which, from one hand, was the time for a formation and functioning of the Cossack-Hetman Ukraine, and, from the other hand, it was the peak in the establishment and development of the Ottoman Empire. Relations between these two states at that time were characterised by not only military invasions, but also by trends to getting mutual understanding and to mutually useful military cooperation and trade (Kalakura, 1996, pp. 151-155).

As for the other possessions of the Ottoman Empire in Europe, the population on those territories (Greeks, Balkan Slavs, Romanians from the Lower-Danuve Area, Hungarians, Ukrainians) were mainly Christians. They were called raya” (- “raya”) (Devellioglu, 1993, p. 880) and had to pay tgo the state a tax set up for them that was called jizye ( - “jizye”) (Ortayli, 2002, pp. 345-352; Turanly, 2016, p. 123). From long ago the Black Sea was a water basin which connected East Europe, particularly Ukraine and the Caucasus, with the countries adjoining to shore of the Mediterranean Sea. The connecting part of the grand trade route between the two seas was the water system “Bosporus Strait - Marmara Sea - Dardanelles Strait”, while the main port city there was the capital of the Byzantine Empire - the city of Constantinople. Proofs of an intensive maritime traffic through the said water system are available in the geographic work “The book of Routes and Kingdoms” () written in about 272 Anno Herigao (885-886 Anno Domini) by the

Arabic scholar Abu'l-Qasim `Ubayd Allah `Abd Allah Ibn Khurradadhbih (Marquart, 1903, p. 390). For example, in the data concerning “The Strait” (--and `The Constantinople Strait” (), that is the Dardanelles Strait and the Marmara Sea together with the Bosphorus Strait, there is said that the mentioned water system “is used for ships to go [down the stream] from the peninsulas of the Al-Khazar Sea The Kerch and Taman Peninsulas are meant. and from the localities [adjoining these peninsulas], and go up [the stream] я нею from the sea of Syria Ibn Khurradadhbih implied the Aegean Sea. to Constantinople” () (Khordadhbeh, 1889,

p. 216). We add that the goods brought to Constantinople from the Black Sea were transported further southwards the basin of the Mediterranean Sea mainly by Venecian merchants (Heyd,

1879, pp. 124-125). I should be noted that it was “the Al-Khazar Sea, that the ancestors of the Ukrainians called in `The Book of Routes and Kingdoms” as “Kievan Rus merchants” () supplied to the land possessions of “the Governor of the Byzentine Empire”

() the traditional export goods of the Kievan Rus, and namely - “gentle pelage” (), “fell of black foxes” (), that is furs, and “swords” ). The trade route of Kievan Rus merchants was of much importance in the world trade of that time, and Ibn Khurradadhbih devoted a whole separate chapter to consider this point (Khordadhbeh, 1889, pp. 154-155). We also can add that in the work “The Book of a Picture of the Earth” () by a great Arabic geograpger of the second half of the 10th century Abu'l-

Qasim Mukhammad ibn Khaukala the capital of the Kievan Rus, the city of “Qayaba” (), that is the city of Kyiv, is mentioned as the main suppliewr of furs to the land possisions of the Arabic Khakifate (Haukal, 1873, p. 281). Therefore, during the 9th c. - 10th c, Kyiv was a big transit centre of trading furs. Though, the trade route “Kyiv ^ Dnieper Estuary ^ Black Sea” was only one of the Black-Sea trade communications that reached Constantinople. The book “An entertaiment of man tired of travelling around the world” () by the Arabic scholar of the 12th century Abu Qabdallah Mukhammad ash-Sharif al-Idrisi, where is available information about the trade routes set thropugh the territorty of Ukraine, mentions a Black-Sea trade route, which having been set along the wester and northern seaside of the Black Sea connected Constantinople with the city of Tamatarkha on the shore of the Kerch Strait (Al-Idrisi, 1891, pp. 855-963; Beylis, 1988, pp. 67-76; Konovalova, 1999, pp. 164-165; Kriukov, 2009, 540 p.). Hence, during the Medieval period of time the city of Constantinople was an important market for trading goods imporfted by the Black Sea, including also the ones that were transported from the Dnipewr and Danube, as well the centre of transiting such goods to the basin of the Mediterranean Sea.

It is clear that under the then political situation it was the Crimean Yurt “yurt” (Crimean Tatar) - “contry”, “motherland”, “native land” (a hearth)., that was the largest obstacle for the implementation of the above said aspirations of the Lithuanian princes. Obviously, the founder of the Crimean Khanate Gaji Melek І (Ruling period: 1420/1421 - 1455) understood all that too. And aiming at provision for himself reliable rears, he tried to support peaceful and friendly relations with the governors subordinated to the Grand Lithuanian Princes. These governors ruled on Ukrainian lands as apanaged princes (Ortekin, 1938, pp. 1-10; Urekli, 1989, pp. 9-11; Mhoshnichenko, pp. 172-175; Pilipchuk, pp. 4062). In addition, Gaji Giray may have taken into account the point, that all the territorial area located between the rivers of Dnieper and Danube along the Black-Sea shore, in the first half of the 15 th century was covered with a lot of Lithuanian-Ukrainian fortifications and citadels, among which we think it reasonable to recall such ones, as Olesko Fort, Bar Fort, Kamyanets Fort, Nevytske Fort, Akkerman Fort and Zbarazh Fort. As for the lands located between the rivers of Dniester and Prut are concerned, beginning from 1401 they were parts of the Principality of Moldavia, which captured also Bilhorod, and, consequently, with that also the wayout into the Black Sea. In 1454 the territorial possessions of Moldavia included also the town-fortress of Khotyn with its poliethnical, mainly Ukrainian, population (Mavrina, 2004, pp. 57-77; Gulevich, 2014, pp. 4-28).

Therefore, changes in the international situation in the above said region which occurred in the middle of the 15 th century significantly impacted the character of relations between Ukraine and the Crimean Khanate; the latter had turned by that time into a powerful state and kept under control vast territories located southwards from the Black Sea. It were

the conditions of such a historical situation, when the formation of a military-political organisation of a specific social order was taking place in (Scherbak, 1997, 180 p.), and this order was made up from “representatives of the free people that lived on the southern lands of Ukraine and had not any governmental and legal limitations and standards for the population of the said area. In the 15 th this social order became known as the one, which was aware of being itself the defender of the Southern Border Area...” (Khalymonenko, 2010, p. 306). Among the people populated the said area the word “Cossack” got expansion as the selfname of the community; this word was of the Turkic origin (Khalymonenko, 2010, p. 306; Scherbak, 1997, p. 21). It should be noted that the process of the formation of Cossackdom as a social phenomenon, being conscious at the same time of the own historical traditions, which were deeply rooted on Ukraine's lands, during the end of the 16th and the first half of the 17th century reached a high level of the cultural and national enthusiasm of the Ukrainian society (Lepyavko, 1996, pp. 28-29; Scherbak, 1997, p. 6).

It should be noted that the significance of the geopolitical situation of Ukraine in the system of international economic connections at that time was accounted for by the point, that Ukraine's territory was crossed by trade routes which provided reliable and stable economic relations of the High Porte with the European countries situated above the Black Sea. Indeed, it was through the territory of Ukraine, that the Baltic cultural and historical region, that also included the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, had connections with the Black Sea. For example, the trade routes used for transporting goods northwards and to the north-west from the Black-Sea shore and reverse, went along the rivers of Dnieper, Danube, Dniester and Prut. On seasides of the Black Sea and Azov Sea, not far from the basins of the above said rivers, Turks erected town-fortresses of Kafa, Taman, Azov, Akkerman and Ochakiv, which became important transit centres for existence of the northwards and north-westwards trade of the Ottoman Empire and were very important in the development of trade relations primarily with the East-European (Yakubova, 2011, pp. 93-94; Sereda, 2015, 312 p.). Particularly, the town- fortress of Kafa turned into the most important Turkish port in the East Crimea, from which marine trades routes went both from west to east, and from south to north. This logistic system also incorporated the Dnieper basin, as well as the town-fortresses located both in the delta of the Danube (Kilia), and near the estuary of the Dniester (Akkerman). The marine trade routes provided together the economic connection of the Upper-Dnieper Area with the Baltic countries (Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia) and with the lands in the Middle - and Lower Dnieper Areas (Ozturk, 2000, pp. 272, 280; Yagici, 2013, pp. 507-536). Therefore, the Dnieper was a trade communication that connected the Baltic Sea with the Crimean Peninsula. We note that a lot of archival documents include data proving a meaningful significance of this trade artery for the social-economic development of Ukraine at the Cossack period of time of its history.

However, the purpose for some Turkish fortification structures was only the defense fucntion. For example, o this kind there were fortesses built in the estuary of the Dnieper: Ochakiv on the north of the Dnieper-Buh Liman and Kilburun on the other bank of the liman. It should be noted that the fortesses of Ochakiv and Azov were of special important for the High Porte in regard of securing protection of the territory of the native state, which was situated northwards from the Black Sea. There are also available data that on the bank of Khodjabey Liman, where nowadays the city of Odesa is located, that is 30 kilometers eastwards from the mouth of the Dniester, the first governor of the Crimean Khanate Gaji Giray (Ruling period: 1420/1421 - 1456) built the town of Khodjabey (I§ik, 2008, pp. 55-76).

As for the fortress of Akkerman is concerned that situated in the mouth of the Dniester river, it was actually the most important Turkish customs check-point control, a kind of `a gate” that regulkated the outcome in the Black Sea for the goods imported from thje territory of Poland (Chelebi, 1997, pp. 8-17). According to the legal standards and norms provided in the so called “Book of Laws” (“Kanunname”), bound for this area, particularly, general trade rules were set up for the goods brought from Lviv to be sent to the Black Sea. For instance, to send from this customs check-point to the destination place of each mule and donkey five akches were to be paid (Turanly, 2016, p. 92). If to speak about the tariff for sending cattle, the payment was to be four akches , while that for two sheep was one akche. One akche was to be paid in addition for each dozen sheep in favour of the cap or owner of the ship which was going to be used for transporting the respective goods. Sending of smoked (dry) fish from Ochakiv, Kilia and other towns and cities payment of a tax fee was imposed too, while no tax was taken from the person who bought the fish products from Akkerman and then transported those on his own. Besides, the above said Book also has information about the bondmen-prisoners delivered from Kafa, and data about some other goods (OACMRT, Tahrir Defteri, No 483, p. 18). So the Ottoman government formed a special administrative body known as “the Shore Security Service” ((4^1 Jb -Yali Agaligt) Coast Security Service.. The person in charge (Head) of this organisation had to guarantee the military security along the Dniester bank and along the trade route which went from Akkerman to the town of Kamyanets (OACMRT, MD, Cilt 97, p.7/48).

Beginning from the 15th century, in Lviv there were seen merchants who arrived from the city of Bursa. Particularly, some data about merchants from the city of Lviv are available in the Registration Book of the city of Bursa (inalcik, 1994, pp. 289-290).

It is important to note that at the time when the government of the Polish and Lithuanian Commonweals was maintaining secure conditions on the trade route, that went from the Baltic Sea to the Black Sea along the river of Dniester, the government of the Ottoman Empire preferred to carry out trading with the north though the route “Lviv - Akkerman”. We should not in addition that the city of Lviv, beginning from the 15 th century, turned into an important centre of the international trade, where merchant representatives of many ethoses - Turks, Italians, Jews, et. c. - made their trade operations. For example, a participation in such trading of an ethically Jewish merchant, Yakuba by name, and the fact of saving and returning to him his property to his relatives because of the death of that merchant, are proved in a special archival document, and namely it is a message from the sultan to the Polish King dated from 11 December 1577 (OACMRT, MD, Cilt 29, p. 63/151).

Goods produced in asian countries (they were spices, jewellery, fabrics, decorations, rise, black pepper were transported though the city of Lviv (Central State Historical Archive of Ukraine in Lviv, f. 52, d. 1, с. 74; Turanly, 2016, pp. 140-141, 571) to the Baltic and Scandinavian countries. In the reverse way there were delivered fabrics of furs, wool, honey, wax, fish, caviar, wheat and other European goods and products. For the Baltic countries the city of Lviv was a kind of “a gate” in the southern direction (inalcik, 1994, pp. 276-277). It should be underlined that such favourite conditions for the organisation and development of the international trade in the considered geopolitical areal were accounted for by stable relations between the Ottoman Empire and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in the 16th century, which is demonstrated in another Turkish-Ottoman archival document “A Travelling Dispatch” issued by Murad III (Ruling period: 1574 - 1595) to Omara, an agent of Merchant Mahmud for the agent to cross Poland travelling to the Moscow's State and receive the money for the goods having been left, the original of which is still kept in Lviv (Central State Historical Archive of Ukraine in Lviv, f. 132, d. 1, c. 127). In general, these facts were important for the socio-economic development of the Cossack Ukraine.

Considering the military-political situation during the 16th century in the Northern Black- Sea Area one should note, that the Crimean Khanate, which was under protectorate of the High Porte, in fact was a powerful military force in East Europe. The point that the authorities of that state formation provided the military capability of its military forces on account of external supplying sources, and this accounted for the permanent invasions of Crimean-Tatar troops onto the territories of Ukraine and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Under the conditions Poland had to respond to the policy of the Ottoman Empire in the Black-Sea Area: to prevent attacks from the side of the Crimean Khanate there were створювалися formed military detachments, in which the majority was made of Ukrainian Cossacks that were Orthodox Christians. From the middle of the 16th century Dmytro Vishnevetsky initiated down the Dnieper rifts and cataracts the movement “Cossack Brotherhood”. This new military- political force became a serious problem in the occupational policy of the Ottoman Empire and Crimean Khanate (Ozturk, 2004, p. 293; Ozturk, 2003, pp. 95-140; Ozturk, 2005, pp. 55-95; Lemercier - Quelquejay, 1969, pp. 258-279; Berindei, 1972, pp. 338-367). Such a scenario of events, that is the fact of using by Poland Zaporozhian Cossacks in its struggle with the above said states, relations between the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and the High Porte, which before that had been in the sense of strategy very friendly, changed radically. Polish noblemen who had noticeable domination in the foreign and domestic policy of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, began to apply their own ways of protection the economic power of the native state on the territory of the basins of the Dnieper, Dniester and Prut, including also here the Ukrainian lands. Specifically, they managed to implement, beginning from 1550, a strengthened defense line set along the northern bank of the river of Danube (Cakir, 2006, pp. 73, 179-356). Many Turkish-Ottoman archival documents include data about the uprising organised by the Polish noblemen in 1565 against the presence of Turkish military forces, which was supported in Khotyn, Akkerman and Moldavia (OACMRT, MD, №> 18, 17/30; OACMRT, MD, No 18, 17/26). In this context other documents tell us about the War Governor of Walachia's note of warning of an uprising in Moldavia, and about his order to provide support to the newly appointed governor of Moldavia (OACMRT, MD, No 18, 17/28; Yucel, 1996, Hukum 30). Though, the external military-political activity of the High Porte in the Northern Black-Sea Area was negatively affected by the fact, that after the governing of Suleiman I (II) Kanuni a certain decay is was taking place in the economic development of this state.

The economic crisis that lasted in the Ottoman Empire till the 17th century resulted in the Northern Black-Sea Area in emergence of qualitatively new political forces, which before that were in vassal dependence and were used by large states within the limits of their own contact zones for close economic, cultural and military interactions between the bordering countries. These forces were represented, on one hand, by the Crimean Khanate whose position and situation in which was worsening by periodical Crimean-Tatar uprisings and rebellions against the central Ottoman government, while on the other hand, by the Zaporozhian Host, which acted jointly with the Crimean Khanate (Turanly, 2019. The military cooperation... pp. 39-55). It should be noted that Zaporozhian Cossacks that were subordinated to the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth also rose against their oppression by the Polish noblemen, in such a way making serious problems for the authorities of that country.

In the first half of the 17th century the government of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth carried out fierce fightings against Cossacks, that ended in the victory of Poles, but that fact did not prevent from the occurrence of a qualitatively new Cossack national-liberating movement in the middle of the said century under the head of Hetman Bohdan Khmelnytsky (Turanly, 2019, Written Documents... pp. 61-68).

Therefore, in the middle of the 17th century the Ukrainian Cossacks were a strong military- political force that had a large influence on the development of international relations in East Europe (Orhunlu, 1971, p. 64; Turanly, 2016, pp. 61-68.). Besides it should be added that the Zaporozhian Sich had not only developed economic and political relations with the High Porte and underwent a significant Turkic cultural impact (Dashkevych, 2011, pp. 204-208). While demonstrating its aspiration for liberating the Ukrainian people, the Zaporozhian Sich was at that time a natural ally of the High Porte in its counteraction to attempts of the Polish- Lithuanian Commonwealth to maintain its domination in the Northern Black-Sea Area. The political authorities of the Cossack-Hetmanic Ukraine also considered the High Porte as its ally in the national-liberating struggle against the oppression by the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. It was this coincidence in the foreign political interests of the two said states, that accounted for an important significance of the Ukrainian-Turkish-CrimeanTatar military-political union during the tumultuous events that occurred in East Europe in the middle of the 17th century. We note that the geopolitical role of Ukraine between the middle of the 17th century and the beginning of the 18th century, particularly the Ukrainian problem in the international policy of the High Porte, becomes of an especially high importance (Turanly, 2016, pp. 234-422).

But because of losing by the polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and by the High Porte their power in East Europe, Moscovia increased there its domination. The united efforts of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and Sweden in the struggle against Moscovia in the beginning of the 18th century turned out to be also insufficient for the complete stopping the military-political activity of the Moscovian Tsardom because of the availability of serious contradictions between the said enimies of that country. As for the Ottoman Empire is concerned, after the conclusion of the Treaty of Karlovice in 1699, when the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth suffered from devastating invasions from Moscovia, it supported peaceful relations with this state and even helped it. Nevertheless, the Ukrainian problem remained further unsettled, or, in other words, it remained actually important in the foreign policy of the Ottoman Empire. That is also supported by the data given in studies of the Ukrainian historian V Stanislavsky about the active participation of merchants in the transportation of diplomatic correspondence between the Ukrainian Cossack State, Crimean Khanate, High Porte and Moscovia (Stanislavsky, 2016, pp. 25-35).

This conclusion is grounded with the contents of a text from a source material provided in Turkish-Ottoman manuscripts.

Let us continue to consider the touched on problem, particularly the development of trade routes between the counries of the above said historico-geographical areals, which expanded through Ukrainian lands. In this context there are important data obtained from another manuscript “A Letter-Order from Turkish Sultan Abdulkhamid І (Ruling period: 1774 - 1789) to Kadee (Turanly, 2016, p. 538) of the city of Izmir”. This manuscript was written in connection of addressing of the Temporary Charge d'Affaires of the Russian State in Istanbul with a request to the Sultan regarding trade aspects, it is dated from Zilkade Month, 1197 (according to the Islamic Hidjri Calendar (1-10 Zilkade, 1197), that is 28 September - 7 October, 1783 according to the Christian Calendar. This original document is kept in Kamyanets-Podilsky State Historical Museum-Reservation of Ukraine (Kamianets- Podilskyi State Historical Museum-Reservation of Ukraine. Repository, KV-27303, KD-d/p 667) “A Letter-Order from Turkish Sultan Abdulkhamid І (Ruling period: 1774 -- 1789) to Kadee of the city of Izmir”. A photocopy of the original of the said document is attached (See: Appendix 1). Inter alia, the author of this work expressed his personal acjbolegements to the collector of the funds of Kamyanets-Podilsky State Historical Museum-Reservation of Ukraine Ms. Inna Shvets, as well as to the senior official of the Institue for History within the national Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, Mr. Vyacheslav Stanislavsky, for their facilitating him in using documewnts from the available funds. . We were the first to start using this document in academic circulation. If to speak about the typical features of the said document, we have identified the title of the document written in the Turkish-Ottoman language using the Arabic graphics. The document consists of the Tugra (Faizov,1996, pp. 427-434; Turanly, 2016, p. 545) The contents of the given tugra: “Khan Abdulkhamis [І], Son of [Sultan] Alhmed [III], is always the winner”. of the mentioned sultan and 12 lines of a text; the waxed paper with the text of the considered sheet according to the data from the inventory card is approximately 77 cm long and 52 cm wide. Because this order includes financial information, on the back side of the document there is the monogram of the Chief Financier of the state - Defterdar / “Defterdar” (Kutukoglu, 1998, p.79). When interpreting the text of the said archival document, we paid attention to the fact, that the sultan characterises the Kadee poetically too. Particularly, line 1 runs the flowing: “The Kadee of the Moslem judges and the leader of all leaders of the people that worship the one God - the Sovereign Lord, who is the source of solid knowledge and raises the banners of the Shariah and religion; who is the Haeres of knowledge of emissaries and predictors, chosen by the governor's order and with the help of the Sovereign Lord, the Kadee of Izmir (May his amount of education rise still more!)! You are the pride of judges and masters, and also a connoisseur of great knowledge and words. Before starting from Istanbul to Izmir and onto the Mediterranean Sea islands (including those of the Aegean Sea)...”. Such grand respect and respective attitude of the governor to the above said statesman shows a large significance of the latter as the Chief Judge in ruling the Empire, inter alia in settling diplomatic affairs. Then in the said Letter-Order [line 2] the sultan instructs all executive state officials, including also commanders of military units, who are in charge for the customs control and collection of the “'jizye” tax (Ortayli, 2002, pp. 345-352; Turanly, 2016, p. 123) from foreign merchants. For instance, the text of the said document includes data of the obligatory reading by state officials the High order of the Sultan called “Ferman” (Turanly, 2016, p. 546), and also an addressing of the Temporary Charge d'Affaires of the Russian state, Knight Derkachov, who is Istanbul. The next lines [3, 4] of the document runs, that the respective diplomat delivered the Governor of the High Porte a letter on the problem having been touched upon. In this connection the said Letter runs that Russian traders may not “.. .neither be made pay the jizye and other taxes twice, if they travel on the territory of the Ottoman Empire, and as well that it is necessary to be friendly with Russian merchants according the conditions and terms of the Treaty on the goods which are to be sold from Russia and from other countries on the territory of their Ottoman Empire at special places for trading such goods. For goods for trading and brought by merchants on lands of the Ottoman Empire, so as to transport such goods onto the territory of Russia and that of other countries, a customs tax shall be paid in the places, where the respective goods were bought, in accordance with the provisions set up in the Tariff Book, in the amount of 3 %, and a receipt shall be given certifying the payment”. This information demonstrates that there were settled problems of Russian traders while they were on the territory of the Ottoman Empire, and that there were set up specific tariff rates for taxing the respective goods. Further the Order [line 5] explains the application of the defined legal standard requirement, an namely: .after receiving one tax fee the customs officers on the territories through which a merchant travels, the merchant shall not be compelled to pay again customs or other taxes, for example, under the pretex that the merchants have crossed the borders. But, if, contradicting this maintained order, the above said merchants pay the customs tax twice, that shall be returned to the payer.”. Moreover, the text of the sultan's letter we have studied informs us of the existence of a treaty between the respective countries. For instance, we find in the next fragment of the document [line 6, 7, 8]: “.Due to the terms and conditions of the Treaty existing between the two states The High Porte and the Russian Empire are implied., and in accordance with specific provisions of this Treaty, a Russian merchant by name Belisar Ivanov The merchant's name is pronounced like Bisari or Belisary (...Rusya tiiccarindan Belisan ivanof nam...)

_v possibly Bell sat:, so as to make his trading, let us know about his trip through Istanbul to Izmir, and also onto some islands in the Mediterranean Sea (including those in the Aegean Sea too). Hence, it was necessary to observe provisions of the said Treaty properly, and bring no harm to the trader during his travelling and not make him pay repeatedly the customs tax, nor other taxes or fees, particularly the jizye tax, which would be against the terms and conditions of the concluded Treaty, nor make any attacks on the merchant, nor impede that merchant's traveling or trading, nor make any claims to the merchant's dressing elements, and nor practice any other obstacles.”. Therefore, the given data makes it possible to speak about a treaty that was associated with the development of economic relations between the said states. The availability of such a treaty was the reason for Sultan Abdulkhamid І to issue the respective Order [line 8, 9, 10], in which he states the obligation to observe the terms and conditions of the mentioned treaty, as well as to guarantee the legal binding of that one in relation of the said Russian merchant, and namely: “.to provide conditions for the merchant to transport his goods, unless those are not illegal, through Istanbul to Izmir and onto some islands The Mediterranian Sea and the Aegean Sea.. The goods for sale brought from other countries, for example the goods from the Russian state, n the places of their purchase and on the places of organisation of their sale shall be completely taxed, according to the terms and conditions of the said treaty and due to provisions of the Tariff Book relating the customs fee, in the amount of 3%, while the payer shall be given a receipt about having made the respective payment. Afterwards, neither payment of the customs tax while the merchant is travelling on the territory of the empire, nor that of the tax for crossing the borderline, nor that of other taxes or fees, shall be prohibited, particularly that of the jizye tax”. The data we have obtained from this fragment of the document demonstrate that only one payment of a certain amount was imposed, a documental confirmation of making that payment being a must. The same legal requirements were also to be applied to traders from other countries, for example to merchants from the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.

It should be noted that the said Letter-Order included instructions concerning not only provision of the personal untouchability of a foreign trader, when that is travelling within the territory of the Ottoman Empire, but also to respect the dressing of such a merchant and his traditions. For instance, lines 10 and 11 of this document state as follows: “. not bring the merchant any harm and do not interfere with his travelling or making trade operations, do not set claims to his dressing, and fulfill properly ale the terms and conditions of the Treaty. It was for that purpose, that our Ferman was made that reserves to be highly honored”. Further the Sultan warns the Judge that his Letter-Order deserves high honour, and that his instructions shall be fulfilled according to the defined terms and conditions The assumption of an interval in line 11 is conditioned by the method of writing handwritten documents for adding the name of the person who is later authorized to deliver this document to the addressee.. The document has in addition data about obligatory thorough observation of the written requirements and informs of a severe punishment, if the order is not fulfilled. In the end of the Letter the date and place of writing that is indicated - the first decade of the month of Zilcade, 1197, according to the Islamic Hidjri Calendar (1-10 Zilcade, 1197), that is 28 September - 7 October 1783 due to the Christian Calendar. The place of writing the Letter-Order is Istanbul.

The Conclusions. Studies of Arabic and Turkish-Ottoman written sources give grounds to say that the port cities Jumne and Constantinople were important trade markets, particularly for the sale of goods transported by Dnieper and Danube. Istanbul had a special significance in the international trading system. Importance of the geopolitical position of Ukraine in the system of international economic relations was accounted for by that fact, that its territory was used for trade routes, which provided permanent and stable economic relations between important ports and countries of East Europe northwards from the Black Sea. The Baltic cultural and historic regions, that included the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, was connected with the Black Sea through the territory of Ukraine.

The economic crisis, which lasted in the Ottoman Empire till the beginning of the 17th century, in the Northern Black-Sea Area new political forces emerged which before that had been in the vassal dependence and used by the great states within their own contact zones for a close economic, cultural and military cooperation of the border countries. Those border forces were, from one side - the Crimean Khanate, and from the other side - The Zaporozhian Host. Our study has shown that the Ukrainian problem has always been an actual item in the international policy of the High Porte.

We have studied the original manuscript “A Letter-Order from Turkish Sultan Andulkhamid І to the Kadee of the city of Izmir”. The data we have obtained from this document proved the economic relations between the countries located within the above said historicogeographical areals to have been long-lasting, and there have also been identified the conditions, in which the trade relations between these countries had been developing, and the routes having been set up through the territory of Ukraine.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Archival Documents

Kam'ianets-Podilskyi derzhavnyi istorychnyi muzei-zapovidnyk Ukrainy. Lyst-nakaz vid turetskoho sultana Abdulkhamida I do kadi m. Izmira. Fondoskhovyshche. KV-27303. KD-d/p 667 [“A Letter-Orderfrom Turkish Sultan Abdulkhamid І (Ruling period: 1774 - 1789) to Kadee of the city ofIzmir”. A photocopy of the original of the said document is attached. Kamaynets-Podilsky State Historical Meseum-Reservation. Repository. KV-27303. KD-d/p 667]. [in Turkish-Ottoman]

TsDIA, Ukrainy u m. Lvovi, f. 52, op, 1, spr. 74 “Poslannia beiu mista Lvova”. Oryhinal napysanyi pryblyzno u druhii polovyni XVI st. Nazva i data napysannia dokumenta utochneni [Central State Historical Archive of Ukraine in Lviv - CSHAUL, f. 52. d. 1. c. 74 “A Message to the Bay ofLviv City”

The original was written approximately in the second half of the 16th century. The title and the date of writing the document were specified]. [in Turkish-Ottoman]

TsDIA Ukrayiny u m. L'vovi, f. 132, op. 1, spr. 127 “Podorozhna, vydana Muradom III u spravi pereyizdu cherez Pol'schu do Moskovs'koyi derzhavy Omara, ahenta kuptsia Mahmuda, dlia ot- rymannia nym hroshey za zalyshenyi tovar”. Oryhinal, napysanyi pryblyzno 3 - 13 chervnia 1581 roku za hrystyyans'kym litochyslenniam (1 - 10 dnia dzhemazeyilevvela misiatsia 989 roku Hijry). [Central State Historical Archive of Ukraine in Lviv - CSHAUL, f. 132. d. 1. c. 127. A travelling Dispatch issued by Murad III to an agent of Merchant Mahmud for the agent to cross Poland travelling to the Moscow's State Omara and receive the money for the goods having been left. The original was written approximately between 3 and 13 1581 A.D. (1-10 Jemazeyilevvel, 989 Anno Herigao)]. [in Turkish-Ottoman]

T.C. BOA, MD, Akkirman Beyine hukum ki [Order to the governor Ackerman that], Hicri: 27 Ramazan, sene 972 / Miladi: 28 §ubat 1565, Nu: 18, 17/30. [in Turkish-Ottoman]

T.C. BOA, MD, Eflak Voyvodasina hukum ki [Order to the governor of Wallachia that], Hicri: 27 Ramazan, sene 972 / Miladi : 28 §ubat 1565, Nu: 18, 17/28. [in Turkish-Ottoman]

T.C. BOA, MD, Kamanife mollasina hukum ki [Order to the Mulla of Kamaynets that], Hicri: Receb 1090, Cilt 97, 7/48. [in Turkish-Ottoman]

T.C. BOA, MD, Leh Kralina Name-i Humayfin [Letter from the Sultan to the King of Poland], Hicri: 21 §evval 984 / Miladi: 11 Ocak 1577, Cilt 29, 63/151. [in Turkish-Ottoman]

T.C. BOA, Tahrir Defteri, Kanunname-i Iskele-i Akkirman der-Ab-i Turla ki, haliya icra olunur [(A Registration and Accounts Book and "A Book of Laws”, which set up and regulated the legal trade relations in the fortress of Akkerman, situated in the estuary of the river of Dniester, including the bay and the port], Nu: 483, 18. [in Turkish-Ottoman]