Means of expressing modality in Modern English

Review of Theoretical and Practical Studying of Modality in English. The Notion of Modality. The Category of Modality. Modal Words as Means of Expressing the Truth. Syntactic Functions of Modal Words. Comparison and General Characteristics of Modal Words.

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Means of expressing modality in Modern English

Introduction

Lexicology is the part of linguistics which studies words. This may include their nature and function as symbols their meaning, the relationship of their meaning to epistemology in general, and the rules of their composition from smaller elements (morphemes such as the English -ed marker for past or un- for negation; and phonemes as basic sound units). Lexicology also involves relations between words, which may involve semantics (for example, love vs. affection), derivation (for example, fathom vs. unfathomably), usage and sociolinguistic distinctions (for example, flesh vs. meat), and any other issues involved in analyzing the whole lexicon of a language(s).

Modality - is a multifold phenomenon, and therefore in the linguistic literature we can find different thoughts concerning the essence of this phenomenon. Modality is a category of linguistic meaning having to do with the expression of possibility and necessity. There are different types of modality and the topicality of our term paper is caused by the necessity to improve knowledge about the term modality and its expression. The problem of modality as an object of interdisciplinary knowledge that is relevant to the modern science, has long been interested in the humanities scholars working in different fields research - logicians, linguists, psychologists, semioticians. A case of studying modality is complicated by multi-pronged approach to it, which leads to different interpretations. Linguistics borrowed the concept of modality from logic and philosophy which define it as the information related to the attitude of the statement to the reality, or its evaluative, temporal and other characteristics. Among the scholars who investigate modality we can mention Sh. Ballie - he was the first to define the category of modality in West-European linguistics. And in Russian linguistics the prominent role in researching the category of modality belongs to academician V.V. Vinogradov. He wrote a lot of books connected with this notion and means of its expression. A lot of works are based on his understanding of modality. Among the other scholars who also tried to describe the modality phenomenon are V.Z. Panfilov, G.A. Zolotova, L.S. Yermolaeva, G.V. Kolshanskiy and others. Numerous linguistic scholars have created various modality classifications, for example N. Petrov, F.R. Palmer, G.J. Lyons, A.B. Bondarenko. Category of modality is one of the most complex and contradictory interpreted in grammatical theory. Despite the presence of fairly long tradition of research modality and a huge amount of literature devoted to it, it is still in a sense blind spot of modern linguistics.

The theme of the term paper is the expression of modality in English.

The subjects of research are modal words in modern English as the basic lexical means of expressing modality.

The relevance of the research is driven by the need to complete the theoretical consideration of the categories of modality, means of expression, organization of modal words, determination of their status.

In linguistic science modal words and word-combinations are considered to be one of the most controversial at Lexico-grammatical level and attract the attention of scientists from the second half of the 20th century. However, the modal words have still not been fully explained due to their complexity, specificity of language expression and functional features.

Thus, lack of full scientific systematization of the categories of modality and means of expression in the English language, have determined the choice of theme for this term paper.

The purpose of the study is to identify the entity in the description and comprehensive analysis of modal words as a part of speech of the English language, as well as consider modal verbs as one means of implementation modality.

In accordance with the purpose the following aims were set :

1. to determine the nature, and main characteristics of the category of modality;

2. to describe the basic modal verbs;

3. to describe the modal words as means of expression;

4. to describe the modal words in terms of their lexical composition;

5. to identify the syntactic function of modal words;

When writing a term paper the following methods were used : comparative and descriptive statistics.

The theoretical and methodological basis of the research works were both Russian and foreign linguists on grammar, logic, syntax and general issues of the language.

Practical significance of the work is the opportunity to consider the results of the study as a fragmentary part of comprehensive study of the functional-semantic category of modality and means of linguistic representations of its constituent components. It determines the scope of the practical application of the term paper, material which can be used in the course of studying contemporary English, special courses of study on modalities, as well as in drafting of best-selling bilingual and monolingual dictionaries.

The structure of the work . The work consists of introduction, two chapters, conclusions and bibliography.

Chapter I. Review of Theoretical and Practical Studying of Modality in Modern English

Perhaps there is another category of linguistic nature and composition of private values which would have so many conflicting points of view, as the category of modality. Most of the authors are included values, as the most heterogeneous in nature, function and level of the language structure, so that the category of modality is deprived of any certainty. However, this issue is of considerable importance, not only for Linguistics and logic, since the category of modality belongs to the field of linguistic phenomena, where their relationship to the logical structure and way of thinking are the most immediate. It is known that the modality in equal measure is the subject of studies and Linguistics and logic. And if the first modality is included into number of the most significant characteristics of the offers as a language unit, in the second it is regarded as a significant indicator of judgment as a form of thinking. Therefore, analysis of the linguistic category of modality can only be performed in close connection with the analysis of the logical categories of modality.

1.1 The Notion of Modality

Linguistics has come a long and winding path in the study of modality, building on the achievements of the logic, semiotics and psychology. However, the modality has not yet received a full explanation because of its complexity, specificity of language expression and functional features. Researchers give various definitions of the categories of modality. Take a look at some of the concepts.

In 1960, in the grammar of the Russian language have been formulated and are all linguistic facts relating to all phrases, introductory words plug-in designs, but the definition of modality has not yet been given.

The first definition of modality found in 1969 in the linguistic dictionary (O.S. Ahmanovoy), which examines the modality as the conceptual category with the value of the speaker's relationship to the content of the remarks and the relationship of language to reality (relationship reported to its actual implementation), through different lexical and grammatical means, such as the shape and inclination, modal verbs etc. Modality can be set to approve, order, requests, approve, reliabilities and so on.

In a dictionary of linguistic terms (1969) is the Division of the modality mode:

· hypothetical(suppositional) modality, which involves the submission of statements alleged;

· verbal modality. modality expressed by the verb;

· unreal modality. the presentation of the contents of speech is impossible, impracticable;

· negative modality - the presentation of the contents of statements as non-reality.

Russian grammar of 1980 notes, first, that the modality is expressed through language levels, secondly, states that an objective category of modality refers to the category of predicatively , thirdly, is the phenomena related to the phenomena of modality:

1. The value of reality- unreality : the reality is by indicative (present, past, future); unreality-the surreal inclinations (subjunctive, conditional, desirable, a socializing);

2. subjectively-modal value is the ratio of the speaker to the reported;

3. The modalities of speech (verbs, adjectives, predicative), lexical values that express ability, desire, imperativness;

English Dictionary of foreign words (1996) gives the following definition: modality-(FR. Modalite, LAT. Modus inclination) is a modality of judgment-the difference between logical judgement depending on the nature of the exercise-from that, whether they are necessary or probable relationship between the logical subject and predicate. On modality distinguish judgments : apodiktichesky, assertorichesky and problematichesky .Turning to the definition given in Dmitry Ushakov dictionary (1996) : modality - conceptual category with the value of the speaker's relationship to the content of the remarks and the relationship of language to reality (the ratio of reported to its actual implementation), expressed by different grammatical and lexical means, such as forms of inclination, modal verbs, intonation, etc. Linguist Vladimir Vinogradov, in his "Russian language" gave a broader definition of modality. It follows that the modality is not only a characteristic of reality and unreality, but the speaker's relationship to the suggestion. From the definition we see that there are two types of modality: objective and subjective, but in the text it's difficult to identify a clear border between them. Many researchers believe that modality is subjective.

1.2 The Category of Modality

As already noted, the category of modality Musayeva G.F. is differentiated in two types: objective and subjective. The objective modality is a required feature of any statements, one of the categories that form a predicate-unit proposal. This type of modality expressed attitude reported to reality in terms of reality (implementation or feasibility). The objective modality organically linked to the category of time and differentiated on the basis of a temporary certainty-uncertainty.

The value of time and reality-unreality merged; the complex of these values is called objective-modal values.

Subjective modality - This is the speaker's attitude to reported. Unlike the objective modality it is an optional feature. The semantic scope of subjective modality is much wider at semantic level than objective modality. Semantic foundations of subjective notion of evaluation forms modality in the broad sense, including not only the logical (intellectual, rational) qualification being reported, but also different kinds of emotional (irrational) reaction. The evaluation characteristic values are values that combine the expression of subjective attitude to reported that its characteristic which can be subjective.

The Modalities include :

· contrasting statements by the nature of their communicative;

· gradation of values in the range "reality-unreality";

· varying degrees of confidence speaking in confidence emerging in his thoughts on the validity of;

· various modifications between subject and predicate.

It is important to note that the modality is the grammatical, lexical, at intonational level, in areas of expression in General, and has various modes of expression, it is expressed in various grammatical and lexical means: special forms inclinations; Modal verbs (e.g., can, should the Russians:; in English: must, can); other modal words (for example, the Russians: it seems, perhaps; English: perhaps, likely); intonational means. Different languages grammatically different express different meanings of modality. So, the English language expresses the value of the unreality method using a special inclination of Subjunctive II; for example: If you had come in time, we should have been able to catch the train.

V.V. Vinogradov, in his study of "Russian grammar "was the notion that the sentence to reflect the reality of its practical public awareness, is attitude to reality, so the sentence with the diversity of its type is closely related to the category of modality. Each proposal includes, as an essential a constructive sign, the modal value, that, contains a reference to the relation to reality. He was of the opinion that the category of modality is one of the major, Central language categories in various forms are seen in the languages of the different systems. V.V. Vinogradov also pointed out that the content of the categories of modality and its form of discovery is historically volatile. The semantic category of modality in the languages of the different systems has mixed the Lexico-grammatical in nature. In the languages of the system it covers the entire fabric of speech.

In the definition of the O.s. Ahmanovoy states that modality can have several meanings, one of which is reliability.

Sentences differ in purpose, emotional colouring, as well as on the degree of the truth or falsity of the information enclosed is for reliability. In contrast, declarative and interrogative sentences, which are differentiated by the subjective modalities, incentive deal with verb-framed in the imperative tense do not vary in the degree of reliability of transmitted content. In this sentence the word is not a confidence, and the intensity of motivation: “Perhaps do it together.” So we have three similar structures, three levels, each of which has its own falsehood truth and its uncertainty. Level of categorical statements decreases as we move from knowledge to belief, and then to the area of uncertainty.

So, we can conclude, on the basis of the research into this problem, that in any section of the speech it can be observed using a variety of modalities. The differences in ways of expressing this category relate in part to internal differences within its sintaksiko-semantic features in its functional-semantic substance. Facts and their relationship, as the content of speech, can be conceived as reality and validity of speaking as an opportunity or desirability, as imperative or need. The problem of description of modal words that express evaluation of reliability of statements repeatedly attract the attention of researchers. The author creates any work (art, nonfiction), using the personal vision of the world, the diversity of their language and culture, to produce the impact on the reader.

As in the term paper we consider such means of expression of reliability reported as modal verbs. Further it is necessary to give their characteristic.

1.3 Modal Words

A Modal word in a dictionary of linguistic terms (1969) as "the word has lost its specific lexical meaning and functioning as a means of descriptive expression of modality" . Belyaeva M.A. English grammar gives the following definition: "modal words are words which express the subjective attitude of the speaker to the thoughts expressed in the sentence". Modal words are a part of speech to which the immutable words, expressing the subjective attitude of the speaker to the expressed thoughts. As to the form the modal words do not form a common external trait. However, two other feature-semantic and syntactic is presented clearly enough, that makes many linguists talk about modal words, as of a separate part of speech. Semantic feature of modal words is their subjective attitudes towards value creation from the point of view of their validity, the duration thereof or desirability. On the meaning modal words differ significantly from other major parts of speech with nominative function;

The syntactic function of modal words-function input member listings, or, much less often, word-suggestions.

Modal words can function as the word-proposals, similar to the words of affirmation and negation proposals-Yes and No. However, the words Yes and No-never change their status, whereas the modal words can be words, sentences (in dialogue) or be the introductory words in the sentence. Professor L.S. Barhudarov states that in the modal expression always play a role in induction of members. L.S. Barhudarov also gives the definition of modal words as words, have reported that the characteristics of the entire value in terms of its probability, capability, links with other facts, events, etc. In addition, Professor Barhudarov noted that not every word that serves as an introductory offer, the member belongs to the class of modal words. Modal words are special part of speech, and the induction of members may make and other parts of speech and word combination: adverbs, preposition, infinitive design, etc. These words are characterized by their immutability and combination with other words.

1.4 Lexical Composition and Classification of Modal Words

In modern English the modal words include the following words:

Certainly, of course, no doubt, surely, apparently, assuredly, undoubtedly, indeed, evidently, naturally, obviously, really, actually, perhaps, maybe, probably, possibly, happily - unhappily, luckily - unluckily, fortunately- unfortunately.

The modal words can be subdivided according to their subjective by relation to the facts of reality into:

1) words expressing approval;

2) words that express assumption;

3) words expressing a subjective rating of the content of the remarks from the point of view of the desirability or otherwise of.

1.5 Modal Words as Means of Expressing Truth

Modal words have assumptions, doubt, likelihood, confidence speaking in the thought expressed in the sentence. Modal words serve as an introductory membership offer and generally refer to the proposal as a whole. Some modal words (for example, of course, certainly, no doubt, perhaps, etc.) can perform the function of Word-sentence» . Consider the following example:

· Pickering: He taught you to speak. I couldn't have done that.

· Liza: Of course.

· Пикеринг: Он научил вас говорить, я не мог это сделать.

· Лиза: Конечно.

Modal words are words by which the speaker evaluates the expression as a whole or its separate parts from the point of view of their relationship to the objective reality. For example: it's true, the bone's eating sea ghoul ; Circumstances, it is true you separated?

In these examples, the word, true, is a modal Word. It expresses the speaker's relationship to the content of the speech as perceived opportunities, in the first sentence the modal Word emphasizes the speaker's relationship to the content of the speech, and the second refers to one of the components of the speech to be. Having considered the data definition of modal words, we can say that the modal words occupy a special place in the system of parts of speech. Their total value is associated with the expression of a modality that is reported to the reality of the relationship that is established a talking person. Most modal words in the English language of adverbs and coincides with the image with the adverb suffix -ly, for modal words often are close to adverbs and particles, so the distinction between the first and last is sometimes difficult.

For example: Our Success really (particle) small.

I listened: really (modal Word), it was the voice.

On the value modal words can be divided into two groups: 1. Modal words with positive value, expressing the logical evaluation of the speech, the speaker's belief in the reality of the absolute authenticity of messages: definitely, true, really, of course, no doubt, of course, etc.

For Example : Two by two, of course, four.

One day, undoubtedly, this Lake will dry up.

To this group belong the phraseological combinations: in fact, it goes without saying, etc.

2. Modal words with the alleged value of expressing possibility, problematical validity (assumption, the probability of admission, doubt): likely, possible, likely, it seems, probably, etc.

For Example: It seemed to me that he probably looked a long time at the door before you enter Eighty-year-old poetess, perhaps, came to this thought through experience gained in the course of her life. A sense of melancholy, probably, is inherent in every. This includes a combination of "maybe", "should", "probably" etc. Modal words differ from significant, to whom they are related by descent, the absence of nominative function. Modal words are not the names of objects, signs or processes, identified significant words; they have no words, grammatical constituent sentence and are not members of the sentences. Once an isolated in the sentence, the words are the modal lexicalisation. Lose not only the variability, but morphological dividedness. So, the combination of "maybe" by getting the value of modal words, often loses the second word (be), and the inflection-em in the word "may" lose the inherent value. It is known that in English, the words express the relationship of the author modal to your statement, indicating confidence, doubt, suggested a positive or negative assessment of what is said in the sentence. Modal words can be simple (sure, perhaps), derivative (surely, naturally, really) and composite (maybe, to be sure).

The most common modal words include:

· the modal words expressing doubt and the assumption, uncertainty in reliability of the reported : maybe, perhaps, probably;

· the modal words expressing approval or disapproval : fortunately, unfortunately, luckily, unluckily, happily, unhappily;

· the modal words expressing strengthening: really;

· the modal words expressing confidence, reliability of the reported: course, sure, surely, to be sure, sure enough, evidently, obviously, no doubt, naturally, really.

Let's review the examples:

1. Perhaps, you're right. - Возможно, вы правы.

2. Unfortunately, the weather was bad. - К сожалению, погода была плохая.

3. I really don't know what's to be done. - Я действительно не знаю, что предстоит сделать.

4. Maybe Mary is ill. - Может быть, Мери заболела.

5. No doubt he will come later. - Он, без сомнения, придет позже.

6. Of course I understand it. - Конечно, я понимаю это. Characteristics of modal words of the syntax are as follows:

1) the use in value of the word-sentence, more often in the dialogical speech: Can I borrow your pen? - Of course. - Можно я одолжу у вас ручку? -Конечно. 2) the use as a parenthesis: You to me, of course, do not have any business 3) the use as affirmative words in the value close to modal particles and adverbs; Certainly, the poet is talented ("certainly" approaches with a modal particle yes). - The poet is certainly talented (certainly - an attributive adverb). - The poet is certainly talented (certainly - the modal word as introduction). As said above, modal words in sentence function induction of members. But note that if all the modal Word can serve as an introductory Word, not every introduction is modal. According to it a modal does not include:

· introductory words, expressing the emotional evaluation of messages (Fortunately, unfortunately, to surprise, to the chagrin of);

· introductory words expressing someone's speech (say, rumored to be);

· introductory words, indicating the sequence of thoughts (first, last, therefore, so, etc.).

As we have already pointed out, the category of modal words usually include indicators expressing a high level of confidence, some researchers called their performance "a categorical reliability " (undoubtedly, certainly, undoubtedly, for certain, by all means, of course, certainly, naturally, really, etc.), The indicators of uncertainty entering assumptions (probably, truly, probably it seems, obviously, probably, apparently, it is visible, apparently, most likely, apparently, perhaps, it seems as if, seemingly, most likely, it has to be, maybe, possible, hardly, in my opinion, and so forth.). Among the words entering value of the assumption, doubt indicators sometimes are separately considered (unlikely, hardly Some authors instead of category of the assumption enter category of opportunity (can be, probably, it is probable and so forth).

In conclusion of this point follows, that modal means in speech realization play very essential role.

In researches of a number of linguists, psycholinguists, psychologists the aspiration to present modal means in the classified look is observed: in the generalized schemes, tables, classifications; they are considered generally as the introduction element, the isolated particles, words and phrases.

1.6 Syntactic Functions of Modal Words

Features of their syntactic functions belong to syntactic features of modal words and their compatibility within other words.

Carrying out function of an introduction sentence part, modal words most often belong to all sentences, but can treat one of his members. When the introduction sentence part expressed by the modal word, belongs to all offer, it can stand at the beginning, in the middle or, more rare, at the end of the sentences. The place of the introduction member expressed by the modal word, in the sentence is reflected in degree of its coherence with contents of the sentence and at a brightness of expression of a modal shade.

Probably, they were right to keep him.

They were probably right to keep him.

They were right to keep him, probably.

These examples show, in - the first that the modal word is most closely connected with contents of the statement between sentence parts, and, on the contrary, less all is connected with it at statement at the end of the sentence, and, in - the second that the shade transferred by the modal word, is expressed most brightly at the use of such an introduction member at the beginning of the sentence.

The modal word usually belongs either to a loose part of the sentence or to the second homogeneous part of the sentence (including a predicate): Some lingering irritability appeared to find a resting place in Mr. Winkle`s bosom, occasioned possibly by the temporary abstraction of his coat. (Ч. Диккенс) It is interesting to note that modal words with value of the assumption (perhaps, maybe, possibly) most often belong only to one of sentence parts.

Compatibility of modal words is very limited. Modal words can have the definition expressed by a degree adverb: most probably

1.7 Comparison of Modal Words as Adverbs

It is necessary to discuss the question of differentiation of these parts of speech to show, to what limits this differentiation remains rather accurate. They specify that difference of modal words from adverbs, concerns their value, their syntactic function and correlation with other parts of speech.

The majority of modal words came from adverbs, but modal words differ from adverbs. Value and syntactic function of an adverb consist properties, a sign or points of circumstances under which action is made. The modal word usually belongs to the whole sentence and expresses the subjective relation when speaking of the introduced idea.

Thus, such words as perhaps, maybe, can be; possibly; probably, treat modal words.

V.N.Zhigadlo explains that from the point of view of a role of the modal word in the sentence, it, as an introduction sentence part, can be opposed to the adverb which is carrying out the function of circumstance of a predicate. Carrying out a function of an introduction sentence part, the modal word belongs to all offer and only sometimes to its certain member. Unlike it the adverb, as a rule, belongs to one sentence part. However such modal words with value of the assumption as perhaps, maybe, possibly, probably most often belong only to one of sentence parts.

The features delimiting a primary group described by us of modal words from adverbs. However as language constantly is in movement and as its change happens very slowly and gradually, and creation of a new part of speech cannot happen differently as during very long period of time. Modal words are the part of speech which now is in process of registration and development. It continues to replenish with the new words developing from adverbs which semantics can promote development of the abstracted value of the subjective relation to the statement.

The question of real structure of modal words is not deprived of theoretical difficulties. Very few parts of speech in English are allocated on the basis of all three signs offered by L.V. Shcherba; however, if the morphological feature is invalid in some cases, as a rule, the syntactic sign participates in the characteristic of this part of speech. It concerns such modal words as perhaps, maybe, probably, possibly which never are sentence parts, i.e. are introduction members even if they stand at the beginning of the offer.

Chapter II. General Characteristic of Modal Verbs

The group of modal verbs includes a small number of the verbs which are distinguished from all verbs with a number of characteristics in value, use and grammatical forms. These verbs have no actual verbal grammatical category (a look, a temporary denotation of pledge); they can have only the inclination and time forms which are indicators of a predicate. Owing to this fact, and also owing to absence of non-predicative forms (an infinitive, a gerund, participles), modal verbs stand on the periphery of verbal system in the English language.

They designate opportunity, ability, probability, need of commission of the action expressed by a notional verb. As they express only modal relation, instead of action, they as a separate sentence part are never used. Modal verbs are always combined only with an infinitive, forming with it combinations which in the sentence is a complete modal predicate.

Modal verbs are deficient verbs (Defective Verbs), because they do not have any forms that have other verbs. Lack of inflected-s in 3-person singular of the present tense is historically saying: modern forms of this time were the forms of the past tense, and 3 of the singular past tense was not personal.

Modal verbs must, should - ought, will-would, can-could, may-might, need can express various shades of the assumption. Scientists assume that modal verbs express objective reality, while parenthesises - subjective. It is possible to assume that verbs can and may specialize on transfer of possible, alleged actions, and verbs of must, should, might, besides value of obligation, transfer also alleged, probable actions, with value of parenthesises, such as perhaps, possibly, probably, certainly. When modal words and parenthesises are used at the same time, in such cases we deal with synonymous designs.

In the offer modal verbs are always combined with an infinitive (perfect and not perfect), forming with it one combination which is called a compound modal predicate. As separate sentence parts modal verbs are not used.

2.1 The Verb Must

The verb must is the assumption, usually based on knowledge and almost bordering on certainty. The combination of the verb must non perfect with infinitive means that the alleged action (or State) is simultaneous with the assumption and the assumption can refer both to the present and past time.

Your father must be nearly eighty now.

Вашему отцу теперь, должно быть, восемьдесят лет.

You must be hungry after your long walk.

Вы, должно быть, сильно проголодались после такой долгой прогулки.

We must have taken a wrong turning.

Мы, должно быть, не там свернули.

The verb must is used in the meaning of assumptions, the probability, that a great degree of confidence. A speaker believes it is plausible hypothesis. In this sense, the verb must roughly corresponds with the help of : evidently, apparently, certainly, most likely, probably.

For the expression must have used assumptions:

1. For the expression: combined with Indefinite Infinitive to express the assumptions relating to the present. Must in this case translated into Russian language should be, probably, and infinitive-a verb in the present tense. The combination of a must with infinitive can be translated into the Russian language is also a must with the infinitive:

He must know her address. Он, должно быть (вероятно), знает её адрес.

He must be in the Library now. Он, должно быть(вероятно), сейчас в библиотеке.

After Continuous Infinitive is a must when it is suggested that the action happens at the moment of speech:

Where is he? - He must be walking in the garden. Где он? - Он, должно быть, гуляет в саду.

Also must in the sense of probability is used with the infinitive of the verbs, the simplest form is not usually used in the form of continuing (to be, to think, etc.)

2. In combination with Perfect Infinitive to express assumption that belongs to the past. The combination of the verb must with perfect infinitive means that the intended operation is preceded by a statement of assumptions, while the assumption may refer both to the present and past time. Must in such cases is being translated into Russian language through should be, probably, and infinitive-a verb in the past tense:

They must have forgotten to send us a copy of the telegram with their letter. Они, должно быть (вероятно), забыли приложить копию телеграммы к своему письму. The cases must have been damaged during the unloading of the vessel

Ящики, должно быть (вероятно), были повреждены во время разгрузки судна.

K.N. Kachalova specifies that for assumption expression, relating to the future, must is not used. Such Russian sentences, as

Погода, должно быть (вероятно), изменится завтра.

Лекция, должно быть (вероятно), будет интересной it is translated into English:

The weather will probably change (is likely to change) to-morrow.

The lecture will probably be interesting (is likely to be interesting). It is important to note that must verb in value of the assumption is used almost only in affirmative sentences. In negative sentences it is not used absolutely, and in interrogative sentences meets seldom, and these questions have rhetorical character. Such Russian sentences, as:

Он, должно быть, не знает об этом.

Он, должно быть, не видел её.

He probably doesn't know about it.

He probably didn't see her.

In negative sentences the assumption is expressed by means of the modal word evidently.

Evidently, she did not know my address.

2.2 The Verb May - Might

This verb means the assumption of possibility of action which can occur, or cannot occur. The verb may in this value can be used both with perfect, and with not perfect infinitive.

It may rain tomorrow.

Завтра, пожалуй, будет дождь.

I may be away from home tomorrow.

Меня, возможно, не будет завтра дома.

The modal verb may is used for assumption expression in which credibility the speaking is not confident:

1. In combination with Indefinite Infinitive for expressing of assumption related to the present or the future. In this case the verb may is translated into Russian by means of can be, probably, and an infinitive - a verb in the real or future tense. May combination an infinitive can be translated also into Russian by a combination can with an infinitive:

He may not know her address. Он, может быть (возможно), не знает её адреса.

He may come to Moscow in the summer. Он, может быть, приедет в Москву летом.

After the verb may is Continuous Infinitive when it is suggested that the action happens at the moment of the speech: Where is he? - He may be walking in the garden. Где он? - Он, может быть гуляет в саду. For the expression of assumptions may is also used in negative form: He may not know her address. Он, может быть (возможно), не знает её адреса.

You may not find him there. Может быть (возможно), вы не застанете его.

2. In combination with Perfect Infinitive the verb may means the assumption related with any action (or state existence) in the past..

May is translated into Russian can be, probably, and an infinitive - a verb in a past tense. The combination of the verb may with Perfect Infinitive can be translated also into Russian by a combination could with an infinitive:

He may have left Moscow. Он, может быть (возможно), уехал из Москвы.

He may have lost your home- address .Он, может быть (возможно), потерял ваш адрес.

It is necessary to pay attention to a compound modal predicate with the verb may in value of the assumption. With a verb in the real or future tense (at not perfect infinitive) or in a past tense (at a perfect infinitive), and this predicate is preceded by the introduction sentence part put into words by "can be", "probably", and in case of an interrogative sentence - it is "interesting".

It is interesting to note that the verb may in value of assumption is very widespread both in art, and in scientific literature.

Linguist K.N.Kachalova writes about the use of the modal verb might that it is used for expression in the indirect speech depending on a verb in a past tense:

1. In combination with Indefinite Infinitive when in the corresponding direct speech it would be necessary to use may with Indefinite Infinitive :

He said that she might know their address.

Он сказал, что она, возможно, знает их адреса.

2. In combination with Perfect Infinitive when in the corresponding direct speech it would be necessary to use may with Perfect Infinitive :

He said that she might have lost their address.

Professor L.S. Barkhudarov about use of the might form writes that in combination with a perfect form of an infinitive might expresses a guess, and also the assumption with big degree of uncertainty and doubt ("who knows").

I don`t know how long the silence lasted. It might have been for half and hour.”

The combination of might to a perfect form of an infinitive can express also alleged action which implementation is obviously impossible.

Had she been fourteen instead of twenty-four, she might have been changed by then (but she was twenty-four, conservative by nature and upbringing). It is necessary to notice that the might form in value of assumption is used mainly in affirmative offers. If after might there is a denial, it belongs not to the assumption, and to action (or to a state), expressed by an infinitive.

To compound modal predicate with might in value of the assumption contradicting reality, there corresponds in Russian the simple or compound (not modal) predicate expressed by a verb in the real or past tense (depending on an infinitive form), and the sentence with such predicate is entered by the words "as though", "it (would) be possible to think", "it is possible to think that …".

2.3 Verbs Should and Ought to

Historically verbs should and ought to were two forms of one verb, expressing a duty. But with the language development they began to designate various values and in the modern language these verbs are already used separately and they are considered as two separate verbs. Similar to other modal verbs, the verb should loses the value of desirability and, except value of a duty, also designates the assumption.

It should be about five now.

Сейчас, должно быть, около пяти часов.

Use of the verb should in this value practically is not described. I.P. Krylova only specifies that the verb should is not so often used in this value and, as a rule, value of the assumption is transferred by the verb must.

The verb ought to is used similarly, expressing caused, based on certain circumstances, probability.

Ought to loses the initial value and also expresses the assumption.

The combination of verbs should and ought to not perfect infinitive indicates simultaneity of the assumption and alleged action (or states), a combination to a perfect infinitive - precedence of alleged action suggested.

It should be noted that verbs should and ought to are interchangeable. If he started at nine he ought to be (should be) here by four.

Если он отправился в девять, ему бы следовало быть здесь к четырём часам. They left at nine, so they ought to (should) have arrived by now.

Они уехали в девять, следовательно, сейчас им бы следовало уже приехать. The author is a well-known expert, so his book ought to be (should be) reliable.

Автор является известным специалистом, поэтому на его книгу, вероятно, можно положиться.

That should (ought to) please you.

Это, вероятно (должно быть) доставит вам удовольствие.

Verbs should and ought to in value of assumption can be used not only in affirmative, but also the negative sentence, and denial belongs not to the assumption, and to action (or to a state), expressed by an infinitive:

It ought not to be very hard to find a man who is prepared to come and talk German to me for an hour. - «Вероятно, не очень трудно найти человека…» I.P. Krylova notes that in value of the assumption the verb ought is used, not really often as in this value it is usually replaced with verb must. However there are some set expressions with a verb ought to:

He/you ought to know it (=he is/ you are supposed to know it).

You ought to be ashamed of yourself.

2.4 The Verb Will - Would

For expression of probability or assumption the verb will - would is used also. The verb will can express the assumption based not on the facts, and on subjective opinion of the speaking. Often the verb will is used in the presence in the sentence of such verbs, as to suppose - «предполагать»,to expect - «ожидать».

The combination of the verb will to not perfect infinitive means that alleged action (or a state) belongs so far and cannot treat the future.

This will be the book you`re looking for.

Это, вероятно, та книга, которую вы ищете.

That will be the postman, I expect.

Это, наверное, почтальон.

The combination of the verb will to a perfect infinitive means that in the present is suggested concerning action; the perfect infinitive thus transfers the same temporary value what is usually transferred by means of Present Perfect, i.e. expresses action already made, but connected with the present:

The reader will have noticed that some words were given as examples both of substantives and adjectives. - «Читатель, вероятно, уже заметил…» The combination of the would form with not perfect and with a perfect infinitive means the assumption stated in the present, concerning action (or states), taking place in the past, i.e. action (or states) which is designated by means of Past Indefinite.

She would be about fifty when she died.

Ей было, вероятно, около пятидесяти лет, когда она умерла. That happened a long time ago. I would be about twenty at that time. Это случилось много лет тому назад. В то время мне было, вероятно, около двадцати лет.

With the verb will - would corresponds to a compound modal predicate in Russian the simple or compound not modal predicate expressed by a verb in the present (at a combination of the verb will to not perfect infinitive) or in a past tense (at a combination of the verb will to a perfect infinitive or the would forms with any form of an infinitive) to which the parenthesis "possibly" precedes.

Sometimes will verb (is more often in would past form) with not perfect infinitive expresses confidence of commission of action speaking in inevitability or existence of any state: And she was completely demoralized - she would be the silly creature! - «…она, конечно, была деморализована…»

Education with the auxiliary verb in the form would is rarer; sometimes in indirect speech, and sometimes to reduce confidence in the assumption, as in:

Hearne smiled…Then Myles wouldn't have heard him last night.” Would his name be Ben Rowe, do you remember?”

But we hope that you will have gathered from the review of your book in this morning's Whirlpool that our scientific staff has been quick to seize even remoter implications of your discovery.

But also in oral speech this form at all is not a rarity, for example: “I don't think you will have met him”

You know - you will have heard - how I left that man...”

Perfect forms of an infinitive usually serve for designation of action.

2.5 The Verb Can - Could

The verb can - could in value of the assumption is used mainly in negative sentences (seldom in interrogative) or in such affirmative sentences on a form in which it is lexically indicated lack of action or its limitation (by means of the words few, little, only, hardly, scarcely, etc.). The verb can can be used both with not perfect, and with a perfect infinitive. In combination with a perfect infinitive the verb can with denial means incredibility of commission of action or existence of any state in the present. The verb can in this sense is an emphatic tone, and he carries the stress: You can`t really love me, or you wouldn't hesitate. - «Не может быть, чтобы ты любил меня…»

The combination of a negative form of the verb can a perfect infinitive means the assumption made in the present of incredibility of that this action (or a state) took place in the past:

You can't have tried. - «Не может быть, чтобы ты пытался (ты, наверное, и не пытался)».

The shade of value of incredibility, surprise keeps a modal verb can and in interrogative sentences: What on earth can he be doing? - «Что ещё он может делать

To compound modal predicate with the verb can (with denial) in value of the assumption corresponds in Russian the complex sentence beginning the words "cannot be, that …", or a simple sentence which part of a predicate the verb is "can" (with denial) in the real or past tense, depending on an infinitive form (not perfect or perfect):

But the war can't last forever. - «Но не может же быть, чтобы война продолжалась вечно (но война не может же продолжаться вечно)». He can`t have been a real gardener, can he? - «Не может быть, чтобы он был настоящим садовником (он не мог быть настоящим садовником)». In the absence of a denial of a combination of the verb can from the infinitive in English is a combination of the verb "may" in the relevant time with the infinitive.

The form could mean denying the suggestion.

She is married. - Married!..But to whom? - To an English lawyer. - But she could not love him? - «…Невозможно, чтобы она его любила (едва ли она его любит)». It was a little gold watch that could not have cost more than ten pounds - « …не могли стоить больше десяти фунтов (едва ли стоили больше десяти фунтов)».

2.6 The Verb Need

When the verb need has modal value, it functions in negative sentences and in combination with denial means a non-obligation of that this action (or a state) takes place in the present, will take place in the future (at not perfect infinitive) or took place in the past (at a perfect infinitive).

...

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