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Content

Introduction

1. Phraseology as a branch of linguistic science

1.1 Semantic structure of phraseological units

1.2 Principles of phraseological units

1.3 Ways of forming phraseological units

1.4 Classification of phraseological units in the Kazakh and English languages

1.5 Phraseological units and their constant functions

2. The peculiarities of translating idioms and stable expressions

2.1 Idiomatic and stable expressions: meanings and definitions

2.2 Translation of idioms and stable phrases

2.3 Translating by choosing absolute or complete equivalents

2.4 Translation of idioms by choosing near equivalents

2.5 Translation by choosing genuine idiomatic and approximate analogies

3. Set Expressions and proverbs in the Phraselogical units

3.1 Classification of set expressions

3.2 The Origin of Set Expressions in Modern English

3.3 Set expressions functioning like nouns (noun phraseologisms)

3.4 Proverbs as a Phraseological units

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

Phraseology. Good knowledge of the language is impossible without the knowledge of his phraseology. World phraseology of Russian and English is great and diverse. And whether there is something in common in the phraseologisms of the twolanguages? English has a thousand-year history. During this time, it has accumulated a large number of expressions that people have found successful, well-aimed and beautiful. And there was a special layer of language - phraseology, a set of stable expression of independent significance. Learning English is widespread in our country. Good knowledge of the language, including English, is impossible without the knowledge of his phraseology. Knowledge phraseology greatly facilitates reading as journalistic and fiction. Judicious use of phraseology makes it more expressive. With the help of idiomatic expressions, which are not translated word for word, and perceived rethought, enhanced the aesthetic aspect of the language. "With the help of idioms like using different shades of color, the information aspect of language is complemented by the sensory-intuitive description of our world, our lives" Anichkov IE Works on linguistics. - St. Petersburg: Nauka, 1997, p. 15.

World phraseology of modern English is great and varied, and every aspect of his research, certainly deserves attention. The vocabulary of a language is enriched not only by words but also by phraseological units. Phraseological units are word-groups that cannot be made in the process of speech, they exist in the language as ready-made units. They are compiled in special dictionaries. The same as words phraseological units express a single notion and are used in a sentence as one part of it. American and British lexicographers call such units «idioms». We can mention such dictionaries as: L.Smith «Words and Idioms», V.Collins «A Book of English Idioms» etc. In these dictionaries we can find words, peculiar in their semantics (idiomatic), side by side with word-groups and sentences. In these dictionaries they are arranged, as a rule, into different semantic groups.

Phraseological units can be classified according to the ways they are formed, according to the degree of the motivation of their meaning, according to their structure and according to their part-of-speech meaning. For learners of English as a foreign language, this layer is difficulty in mastering, but after the development of phraseology can start talking like the English, and understand them perfectly, so as voice readiness increases dramatically. Can be briefly and accurately express their thoughts, confident in the correctness of its expression. In many cases, knowledge of English phraseology avoids russitsizmov, ie, literal translations of proposals from Russian into English. Thus, of all of the above it can be concluded that the relevance of the topic is undeniable.

The actuality of the research in this thesis is of great importance for many reasons: First of all it is generally known that the role of English phraseological units has increased dramatically in recent years. It is reflected in the spate of dictionaries and practice books devoted to them which have recently appeared in Britain, especially it refers to so called phrasal verbs which play an integral role in Modern English.

Secondly they are typical features of the English language with a verbal type of expression and necessary to be understood in order to master English. Phraseological units are also one of the most difficult problems in the process of teaching. Now there are a lot of methods and approaches in that sphere.

And the last but very important reason for studying this problem is that they have great future and as stated S.H. Sager they will “change the English language” They are more picturesque than literal words.

The object of study chosen phraseological expressions in English and Russian languages , to study the role of phraseological unit in the language and use of phraseologucal units, to analyze the equivalence phraselogical word, to consider the types of phraseology and the concept of phraselogical system, to show the way the appearance of phraseology in English.

The subject matter of phraseology as a linguistic discipline includes a comprehensive study of phraseological stock of a particular language. Important aspects of the study of this science are: stability of phraseological units, system phraseology and semantic structure of phraseological units, their origin and basic functions. It is also interesting problem is the translation of phraseological units. Due to the indivisibility of values ??phraseologism need, knowing its value, choose the same idiom in it's own language.

The aim of this work is to study ways of becoming lexico- simantic pecularities of English and Kazakh phraseological units and the formation and the structure of the phraseological units and their similarities and differences of the phraseologisms in English and Kazakh languages.

The purpose is concretized in the following tasks:

- to analyse different approaches to the classification of phraseological units;

- to investigate the peculiarities of the employment of phraseological units in business English;

- to examine usage of neologisms in newspaper headlines.

To solve the given problems the following methods and techniques of research are used: The main method of the research is the descriptive method including some complex of procedures and techniques.

1) By the way of continuous sampling method phraseological units with the meaning of lived time were selected from different English and Russian dictionaries.

2) For systematization and generalization of the material distributional analysis was used. The selected phraseological units were subjected to intralingual semantic analysis, component analysis in its definition form. Also the technique of material classification according to semantic characteristics was used.

3) As well for systematization of gathered material the comparative method including the technique of giving an index of interlanguage correspondence to every unit and quantitative calculations was used.

4) For the national specific description of analyzed phraseological units linguistic cultural analysis including finding out the etymology of given units, technique of metaphoric modeling, revelation of interlanguage irrelevances (lacunes) and their calculation was applied.

General functions of phraseological units, semantics and structure are given a vast attention by linguists where as their stylistic characteristics receive rather less consideration. Work regarding occasional phraseology are absent from Kazakh linguistics thus far. In fact, consideration of stylistic patterns of these phraseological word combinations is none the less important than research of their origin, semantics and structure: language is continuously changing, and occasional phraseological units, common proverbs and sayings are the ones that reflect this process; it is evidenced by the change and replacement of components, extension of composition, change of meaning, development of phraseological units into the broader context, etc.

Practical value of the research This diploma work supplements a relevant field of stylistics that has not been comprehensively studied yet, namely occasional usage of phraseological units, i.e., ways of creative usage of phraseology: cases of structural, semantic and mixed modifications. In both theoretical and practical respects it can be useful for researchers of stylistics and rhetoric, lexicologists and specialists of other fields of linguistics.

Provisions submitted for defense are as following:

1.Effectiveness of occasional phraseological unit is usually dependant on the

creative potential and ingenuity of the publication's author as use of a particular modification type is not always stylistically significant and affective.

2.Occasional phraseological word combinations make the thought more vivid, increase its expressiveness and level of emotionality, form the effect of irony, unexpectedness and disappointed expectations, and stress a particular thought.

3. Possibilities of modification of common proverbs and sayings are similar to those of phraseological units, and due to their more flexible structure, broader scope and completeness of thought, sometimes better and more effective modification possibilities exist for the first.

4.Modification of phraseological word combinations, common proverbs and sayings reveal their transformational, deformational flexibility, adaptability to situations of modern lifestyle, ability to describe a phenomen on or subject more precisely and at the same time - more freshly and relevantly.

The structure of the work consists of introduction, the main parts, conclusion, summary and the list of used literature.

The work consists of three parts:

Each part includes the theoretical basis and general notions of the work.

In the first part we tried to give a definition of phraseological units and their semantic structures, principles , ways of forming phraseological units, classification of phraseological units and their structural types, free word groups

Part Two includes the peculiarities of translating idioms and stable expressions, translation of idioms and stable phrases, descriptive translating of idiomatic and set expressions, transformation of some idioms in the process of translating

Part Three includes set expressions and proverbs in the Phraselogical units, classification of set expressions, origin of Set Expressions in Modern English, proverbs as a Phraseological units.

1. Phraseology as a branch of linguistic science

Phraseology - a branch of linguistics that studies the stable combinations in the language. Phraseology is also called the set of stable combinations in the language as a whole, in the language of a writer in the language of a particular work of art, etc. As an independent linguistic discipline phraseology emerged relatively recently. The object and purpose, scope and methods of studying phraseology still not clearly defined, and are therefore not been fully elaborated. Other less developed questions about the main features of phraseology as compared with the free word combinations, the classification of phraseological units and their relationship with the parts of speech, and so on. D. Do linguists no unified opinion that such idiom, there is, therefore, the unity of views on the composition of these units in the language. Some researchers (LP Smith, VP Zhukov, V. Telia, NM Shan et al.) Is incorporated into the phraseology stable combinations, other (NN Amosova, AM Babkin , AI Smirnitsky et al.) - only certain groups. For example, some linguists (including Academician VV Vinogradov) do not include the category of phraseology proverbs and popular expressions, believing that they are in their semantics and syntactic structure different from the phraseological units. VV Vinogradov stated, "Proverbs and sayings have sentence structure and are not semantically equivalent words" VV Vinogradov The main types of phraseological units in Russian. - M .: Nauka, 1986, p. 243.

Phraseology is a comparatively young field of linguistics which has only relatively recently become established as a self-contained linguistic discipline. Phraseology is pervasive in all language fields. The phraseology literature represents it as a subfield of lexicology dealing with the study of word combinations.

Along with the term “phraseological unit” generally accepted in our country there exist a lot of other terms, such as: set phrases, word equivalents, idioms. Numerous English dictionaries of idioms contain a wealth of proverbs, sayings, various expressions of all kinds, but, as a rule, they do not seek a reliable criterion to distinguish between free word-groups and phraseological units. The complexity of the problem may be largely accounted for by the fact, that the borderline between free word-groups and phraseological units is not clearly defined.

In linguistics, phraseology is the study of set or fixed expressions, such as idioms, phrasal verbs, and other types of multi-word lexical units (often collectively referred to as phrasemes), in which the component parts of the expression take on a meaning more specific than or otherwise not predictable from the sum of their meanings when used independently. For example, `Dutch auction' is composed of the words Dutch `of or pertaining to the Netherlands' and auction `a public sale in which goods are sold to the highest bidder', but its meaning is not `a sale in the Netherlands where goods are sold to the highest bidder'. Instead, the phrase has a conventionalized meaning referring to any auction where, instead of rising, the prices fall.

In present-day the concepts of phraseologic unit and phraseologism are seriously challenged, on different levels, by the structures stable syntactic groups, phraseologic groups, constant word combinations, fixed word combinations, fixed syntagms, syntagmatic units[1, p.255].

Phraseology is a scholarly approach to language which developed in the twentieth century. It took its start when Charles Bally's notion of locutions phraseologiques entered Russian lexicology and lexicography in the 1930s and 1940s. The concept of phraseologic unit (unitй phrasйologique), first used by Charles Bally, in Prйcis de stylistique, was taken by V.V. Vinogradov and other Soviet linguists, who translated it as «фразеологічна одиниця», which led to the term frazeologhizm, with the same meaning, and then subsequently borrowed by different languages belonging to the European culture.

The earliest English adaptations of phraseology are by Weinreich (1969) within the approach of transformational grammar, Arnold (1973), and Lipka (1992, 1974). In Great Britain as well as other Western European countries, phraseology has steadily been developed over the last twenty years. The activities of the European Society of Phraseology and the European Association for Lexicography with their regular conventions and publications attest to the prolific European interest in phraseology.

However, it is due to the expansive research of soviet school of linguists that phraseology has been established as a branch of linguistic science in its own right. The term phraseology designates the discipline as well as its object, the set or totality of phraseologic units in a given language. According to the origin of phraseologisms, a line has been drawn between two areas of investigation, namely, linguistic phraseology understood as “a community's means of expression” and literary phraseology including “aphorisms, witticism, word combinations with an accidental character, belonging to certain writers, outstanding people”.

There are different definitions of the notion `phraseology' and `phraseological unit.' According to Prof. Kunin A.V., phraseological units are stable word-groups with partially or fully transferred meanings ("to kick the bucket", “Greek gift”, “drink till all's blue”, “drunk as a fiddler (drunk as a lord, as a boiled owl)”, “as mad as a hatter (as a march hare)”).

According to Rosemarie Glдser, a phraseological unit is a lexicalized, reproducible bilexemic or polylexemic word group in common use, which has relative syntactic and semantic stability, may be idiomatized, may carry connotations, and may have an emphatic or intensifying function in a text.

English and American linguists collect various words, word-groups, other units presenting some interest and describe them as idioms. 'Idioms are one of the most interesting and difficult parts of the English vocabulary. They are interesting because they are colourful and lively and because they are linguistic curiosities. At the same time, they are difficult because they have unpredictable meanings or collocations and grammar, and often have special connotations. Idioms are frequently neglected in general dictionaries and in classroom teaching, because they are considered marginal items which are quaint but not significant. Yet research into idioms shows that they have important roles in spoken language and in writing, in particular in conveying evaluations and in developing or maintaining interactions', says Collins COBUILD Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs.

As an autonomous discipline, the object of research of phraseology consists in phraseologic units of a given language (or a group of languages).

While the notion of phraseology is a very widespread concept, different authors define it differently, sometimes do not provide a clear-cut definition, or conflate several terms that many scholars prefer to distinguish. Stefan Gries identifies a set of parameters that are typically implicated in phraseological research:

1. the nature of the elements involved in a phraseologism (lexical and grammatical items);

2. the number of elements involved in a phraseologism;

3. the number of times an expression must be observed before it counts as a phraseologism;

4. the permissible distance between the elements involved in a phraseologism (immediately adjacent elements, discontinuous phraseologisms);

5. the degree of lexical and syntactic flexibility of the elements involved (completely inflexible patterns, standardly quoted as by and large, relatively flexible patterns such as kick the bucket,which allows different tenses but, e.g., no passivization));

6. the role that semantic unity and semantic non-compositionality / non-predictability play in the definition (function as a semantic unit in sentence or clause).

According to these criteria Stefan Gries defines a phraseologism as the co-occurrence of a form or a lemma of a lexical item and one or more additional linguistic elements of various kinds which functions as one semantic unit in a clause or sentence and whose frequency of co-occurrence is larger than expected on the basis of chance. While this definition is maximally explicit with respect to the above-mentioned parameters, it follows that the range of phenomena regarded as phraseologisms is very large[2, p.365].

Phraseological units or idioms, as most Western scholars call them, represent the most colorful and expressive part of the English language vocabulary.

If synonyms may be figuratively referred to as the tints[1] and colors of the vocabulary, then phraseology is a kind of picture gallery, in which are collected bright and amusing sketches of the nation's customs, traditions, recollections of its past history, folk songs, fairy tales, quotations from the great poets, crude slang witticisms[2], etc. Phraseology is not only the most colorful, but probably the most democratic area of vocabulary and it drowse its resources mostly from the very depths of popular speech. Thus, together with synonymy and antonymy, phraseology represents expressive sources of vocabulary.

1.1 Semantic structure of the phraseological units

Language is the most important means of human being. Language is changeable, but there are unchangeable things in the life of any language - phraseological units: proverbs and sayings. Nowadays, many scholars are interested in two languages through scientific methods. Phraseological units: proverbs and sayings are one of the most researchable branches of Lexicology, at the same time, demanding a deeper investigation comparing two languages. From this, it follows that comparison of phraseological units of the English and Kazakh languages is very actual. Phraseological units or idioms as they are called by most western scholars represent, what can probably be described as the most picturesque, colorful and expressive part of the language's vocabulary. In folklore among all the variety and richness of its poetical significance and form it is difficult to find more interesting and researchable genre than phraseological units: proverbs and sayings. It was the subject of deep study of scientists in most different ideological branches. Proverbs were not only the person's point of view but also general people's outlook is expressed. Proverbs play important role in language. They give emotionality, expressiveness to the speech. They have certain pure linguistic features that must always be taken into account in order to distinguish them from simple sentences. Proverbs are brief statements showing uncondensed form of the accumulated life experience of the community and serving as conventional practical symbols for abstract ideas. They are usually didactic and image bearing. Many of them become very polished and there is no extra word in proverbs. Summarizing above mentioned, information the following definition can be given to proverbs: they are stable word-groups with partially or fully transferred meanings, they cannot be made in the process of speech, they exist in the language as ready-made units that people had created for centuries in their social and historical life. The same as words proverbs express a single notion and are used in a sentence as one part of it. American and British lexicographers call such units «idioms». We can mention such dictionaries as: L.Smith «Words and Idioms», V.Collins «A Book of English Idioms» etc. In these dictionaries we can find words, peculiar in their semantics (idiomatic), side by side with word-groups and sentences. In these dictionaries they are arranged, as a rule, into different semantic groups. V. H. Collins writes in his «Book of English idioms»: «In standard spoken and written English today idiom is an established and essential element that, used with care, ornaments and enriches the language.» «Used with care» is an important warning because speech overloaded with idioms loses its freshness and originality. Idioms are ready-made speech units, and their repetition sometimes wears them out: they lose their colors. Therefore, idioms are used as ready-made units with fixed and constant structures.

Most Russian scholars today accept the semantic criterion of distinguishing phraseological units from free word-groups as the major one and base their research work in the field of phraseology on the definition of a phraseological unit offered by Professor A. V. Koonin, the leading authority on problems of English Phraseology: «A phraseological unit is a stable word-group characterizing by a completely or partially transferred meaning». [3, p.205]

Among Kazakh scientists we can mention the following researchers who studied this branch of Lexicology: I. Kenesbayev, R. Sarsenbayev, B. Adambayev, G. Musabayev, K. Ahanov. For example, K. Ahanov studied Phraseological units: sayings and in his book «Tilbiliminekirispe» in the part lexicology wrote about the Kazakh phraseology.

Establishment of phraseology shows the peculiarities of the national language and qualities of the national culture. Comparing phraseology of genetically distant and different languages as Kazakh and English allows us to find national - cultural peculiarities, their similarities and differences. There are many similarities and differences in Kazakh and English phraseological units.

Writers use a lot of phraseological units in their works, because they supply informative and descriptive functions. The study of the Kazakh and English proverbs is very important, especially, for interpreters of these languages. The correct usage of phraseological units while translating any other work of art we should pay close attention to this point, and that is the reason of the study of the theme we have taken under discussion. So, we expressany idea or plot of the work in translation as in original that demands a person's high skill and deep knowledge. A translator ought to know the rules of translation, furthermore the history, slang, life style, customs and traditions of the people whose language he / she translates into.

To study the proverbs and find differentiation and similarities between two non-related languages, to distinguish the cultural features in every language are the most important point for us. We mainly discuss the Kazakh proverbs and their translation into foreign languages.

Russian scientists N.N. Amosova, A.V Koonin and others have done great contributions to phraseology of the English language. So, phraseological units or idioms represent the most colorful and expressive part of the English language vocabulary.

Despite differences of opinion, most authors agree upon some points concerning the distinctive features of phraseological units, such as:

1. Integrity (or transference) of meaning means that none of the idiom components is separately associated with any referents of objective reality, and the meaning of the whole unit cannot be deduced from the meanings of its components.

2. Stability (lexical and grammatical) means that no lexical substitution is possible in an idiom in comparison with free or variable word-combinations (with an exception of some cases when such substitutions are made by the author intentionally). The experiments conducted in the 1990s showed that, the meaning of an idiom is not exactly identical to its literal paraphrase given in the dictionary entry. That is why we may speak about lexical flexibility of many units if they are used in a creative manner. Lexical stability is usually accompanied by grammatical stability which prohibits any grammatical changes;

3. Separability means that the structure of an idiom is not something indivisible, certain modifications are possible within certain boundaries. Here we meet with the so-called lexical and grammatical variants. To illustrate this point there are given some examples: «as hungry as a wolf (as a hunter)», «as safe as a house (houses)».

4. Expressivity and emotiveness means that idioms are also characterized by stylistic coloring. In other words, they evoke emotions or add expressiveness. [5]

Moreover, we have studied the English idioms on the following themes: descriptions of people (personality, character, appearance, behavior, beauty); lifestyle - way of life (problems, difficulties), honesty - dishonesty; feelings of people (emotions, luck, opportunity, arguments, disagreements); authority, power, business - work; relationships, communication. Then we have found that not of all idioms which are based on English have equivalent in the Kazakh language. We have come across on the following noticeable themes, such as Friendship, Motherland, Time, Knowledge, Beauty, Health, Work, and a lot other different subjects[4, p.189].

Nowadays, the main and important direction of language policy is to reestablish and flourish national values, raise the status of the state language. Also, during the last years the problem of comparing national languages with genetically and typologically different languages is being researched widely in modern linguistics. A lot of scholars display their interest in comparing languages not only in regard of their structure, but also they bring some parallels and contrasts of their lexical staff.

Establishment of phraseology shows the peculiarities of national language and qualities of national culture. Comparing phraseology of genetically distant languages as Kazakh and English allows finding national - cultural peculiarities, their similarities and differences. Writers are using a lot of phraseological units, because they have informing and descriptive functions. Thus, we can consider that the fiction is the main source of using phraseological units. A person is conscious of a surrounding reality through perceiving it by senses. Different sense organs of human body carry out definite sensing functions. So different people's activities are fulfilled by means of their physical organs that are by their parts of body. On the other hand, human body is an accessible object of man's observation since his first faces. This unique fact promotes usto consider it through phraseological units containing names of parts of body. In medicine body parts are called "somatika" from Greek "soma" - body, therefore the term "somatism", established in linguistics, traditionally is used to denote names of body parts. Estonian scholar F. Vack was the first who introduced the term «somatic» to linguistics. Studying the phraseological units of Estonian language, he concluded that names of body parts are one of the ancient fundaments of phraseology. The term "phraseological somatism" was firstly used by E.M. Mordkovich, who applied it to the Russian language in his article "Semantic - thematical groups of somatic phraseologisms" [5, p.112].

The same opinion was supported by English scholar Logan Smith, who pointed out the enormous number of phraseological units consisting of body parts in English language and, thus, enrich and make English language more figurative.

Kazakh language is also rich for somatic phraseological units. These concepts are connected directly with a person, because he knows, understands the world, the environment, different phenomena by himself, by comparing them with himself.

Kazakh scholar B.K. Yuzbayeva in her dissertational work pointed out that somatic phraseological units are a big sphere of Kazakh phraseology that needs to be investigated. In her opinion, the value of somatic phraseological units lies in access to analysis the nation's spiritual life from linguistic point of view.

A.K. Myrzasheva points out that all peculiarities of national culture reflect in its language, which, in its turn, reflects surrounding world and a person, learning and acting in this world. Objective world in phraseological sense, as a rule, anthropologic world that is a person, social, cultural, psychic aspects of human nature, human society and ethnos. Information and knowledge about surrounding reality a person receives by means of linguistic channels, therefore he lives in "the world of concepts", created by a person for his different needs.

The observations of mentioned scholars raised our interest to consider the level of expressiveness, the degree of reflection cultural differences of Kazakh and English people in somatic phraseological units.

To elucidate the issue, we analyzed the following works of English speaking writers: Jerome K. Jerome "Three men in a boat", Elizabeth Gaskell "Mary Barton", Henry James "The Europeans", Eleanor Atkinson "Greyfriars Bobby", and works of Kazakh writers: Zhusypbek Aimautov "Akbylek", Gabiden Mustaphin "Millionaire".

During the process of collecting examples of somatic phraseological units, we defined the following semantic groups related to both languages. Here we give examples to some of them:

1) Somatic phraseological units denoting person's characteristics:

* light hearted, thick-headed, etc.

"They began in a light - hearted spirit, evidently intending to show me how to do

it."(Jerome K. Jerome "Three men in a boat", p.33) "The region round about furnished an unfailing supply of 'puir orphan an' faderless boys' who were as light hearted and irresponsible as Bobby." (Eleanor Atkinson "Greyfriars Bobby", p. 13)

"?зі бір саудыра?ан а? к??іл бала сия?ты адам. Не десе?, со?ан нанады." (Zhusypbek Aimautov "Akbylek", p. 190) "Біреу "э?г?дік", біреу "есер" десе де, Амантай ?алт?ысы жо?, а?к??іл жігіт." Somatic phraseological units used in each of these sentences portray a joyful, happy person. In the second example the use of the idioms made the extract more impressionistic. In the third example the idiom "light-hearted" indicates the personality of the orphans, who were irresponsible not because of their stupidity, but their tranquility. Eleanor Atkinson compared them with Bobby, a kind and shaggy dog, which was carefree and ready for adventures. Jerome K. Jerome also compared hero's character with an irresponsible and sensitive puppy. As for Kazakh examples, joyfulness is expressed by the idiom иа? к??іл". Kazakh people connected emotions with mood and soul, because they believed that they are dissoluble and interconnected[6, p.125].

These examples are evidence to our opinion. The idioms used in the sentences express a light joyfulness with a light stupidity that wasn't occupied with life obstacles and tension.

2) Somatic phraseological units denoting psychological conditions, emotions and feelings of people {to be sick at heart/ ж?регі айну; to break one's heart - ?абыргасьі ?айысу; to touch the heart - ж?регі еру, ж?регі жылу; smb's heart sink - ж?регі су emy, журегі ?рку, жаны шошу; to hang down one's head - бас mepici аузына т?су; to have no face - бет шыдамау);

3) Somatic phraseological units denoting human interrelations, attitudes towards each other:

a) positive interrelations (to take to one's heart - бауыр басу; to set one's heart on (upon) - жаны цумар; to gladden smb's heart - iiui жылу);

* An apple of an eye: "It was during this time his little son, the apple of his eye, the cynosure of all his strong power of love, fell ill of the scarlet fever."(Elizabeth Gaskell "Mary Barton", p.22) "К?зімні? ?арашьігы, Жанатжан, сені ?андай тілесем, осы колхозды дэл сондай тілеген едім." "Жанат пен мен ?ос к?зді? царашыгы болганда, осы колхоз дене?із емес пе еді. Дене б?зылса, д?рменсіз ?арашы?ты? бары не, жо?ы He?"(Gabiden Mustaphin "Millionaire", p. 238, 293)

Originally, because of its shape, the apple was the metaphor for the pupil of the eye. As one's eyesight is precious, so is the person described as the apple of one's eye. The same phenomenon can be observed in Kazakh language. The idiom "к?зді? ?арашыгьГ translates into English as "a« apple of an eye". It is obvious, because eyesight is precious for all humanity, and the dearest people are associated with it. In English and Kazakh extracts these idioms were used to point out beloved and important persons in heroes' lives. The idioms considerably increased the figurativeness of the extract and made it more impressive.

b) negative interrelations, attitudes (to harden one's heart - к??ілі cyy; to grind one's teeth - азуын басу; to lay hands on smb - ?оп жумсау):

* To grind one's teeth: "So it's thee, is it! It's thee!" exclaimed John, as he ground his teeth, and shook her with passion."(Elizabeth Gaskell "Mary Barton", p. 116)

"Тегі, а?са?ал?а азуын бас?ан біреу басып берді ?ой. ?йтпесе, ?иядагы ауылга келетін реті жо? Kofi."(Zhusypbek Aimautov "Akbylek", р.35)

The meaning of the idiom "to grind one's teeth" is expressing fury. It effectively expresses the hero's anger, wrath in the first extract. In Kazakh language the somatic phraseological unit with the somatism «азу» (tooth) also conveys such emotions. But it implements an additional meaning as harboring the revenge to somebody for the past offences.

4) Somatic phraseological units denoting human actions:

a) mental activities (put your heads together - бас ?осу, to enter smb's head -басына кіру, басына ой тусу; not to make head or tail of smth - басы ?ату);

b) seeing activities (to take smb's eyes off smth - к?з алмау, к?зі ішіп-жеу; to meet smb's eyes - козі тусу; to open one 's eyes - к?зі аиіылу; to keep an eye on smb - о?ты к?зіммен ?арау, ала к?зімен царау);

c) speaking activities (То hold one's tongue/ to open one's lips - жумган аузын

ашпау, тіл ?атпау; bite one's lips - аузын багу, аузына ?ум ?уйылу; not to find in one's heart -аузы бармау; to wag one's tongue - аузы аузына жу?пау);

d) hearing activities (with all smb's ears, be all ears - ?ула? салу, ?ула? ?ою; to grate smb's ears - ?ула? жару)\ Analyzing selected somatic phraseological units we have found differences and similarities in the languages, and made the following conclusions:

1) There is a group of somatic phraseological units in Kazakh and English languages.

2) In both languages phraseological units consisting of parts of body considerably increase figurativeness and impressiveness of the plots.

3) They can be classified into several groups according to their semantic meanings.

4) In order to express emotions, passion and strong feelings English speaking writers use somatic phraseological units with somatism "heart", while Kazakh writers express emotions with the words "soul" (жан), "mood" (к??іл). For example: light - hearted - а? к??іл, to take to heart - жанына бату, etc.

5) In Kazakh and English languages there are several similarities in denoting some phenomena. For example, smb's hair stands up on end - тебе шашы тік турды, to widen one's eyes - к?зі шарасьінан шы?ты, an apple of an eye - к?зді? ?арашыгы, to put smb's heads together - бас ?осу, etc.

6) Kazakh language is richer for somatic phraseological units than English. To one English idiom we found several different Kazakh equivalents: To keep an eye on smb - к?з ?адау, отты козіммен ?арау, ала к?зімен ?арау, к?зін алайту; To hold one's tongue/ to open one's lips- ж?мган аузын aumay, тіл ?аптау, аузын багу, аузына ??м ??йылу;

We can state that we reached the aim established in the beginning of the investigation, and we hope that received facts will contribute to the further development of comparative linguistics[7, p.206].

1.2 Principles of phraseological units 

There are three classification principles of phraseological units. The most popular is the synchronic (semantic) classification of phraseological units by V.V. Vinogradov. He developed some points first advanced by the Swiss linguist Charles Bally and gave a strong impetus to a purely lexicological treatment of the material. It means that phraseological units were defined as lexical complexes with specific semantic features and classified accordingly. His classification is based upon the motivation of the unit that is the relationship between the meaning of the whole and the meanings of its component parts. The degree of motivation is correlated with the rigidity, indivisibility and semantic unity of the expression that is with the possibility of changing the form or the order of components and of substituting the whole by a single word though not in all the cases.

According to Vinogradov's classification all phraseological units are divided into phraseological fusions, phraseological unities and phraseological combinations.

Phraseological fusion is a semantically indivisible phraseological unit which meaning is never influenced by the meanings of its components [2; 244].

It means that phraseological fusions represent the highest stage of blending together. The meaning of components is completely absorbed by the meaning of the whole, by its expressiveness and emotional properties.

Once in a blue moon - very seldom;

To cry for the moon - to demand unreal;

Under the rose - quietly.

Sometimes phraseological fusions are called idioms under which linguists understand a complete loss of the inner form. To explain the meaning of idioms is a complicated etymological problem (tit to tat means “to revenge”, but no one can explain the meaning of the words tit and tat).

Phraseological unity is a semantically indivisible phraseological unit the whole meaning of which is motivated by the meanings of its components [2; 245].

In general, phraseological unities are the phrases where the meaning of the whole unity is not the sum of the meanings of its components but is based upon them and may be understood from the components. The meaning of the significant word is not too remote from its ordinary meanings. This meaning is formed as a result of generalized figurative meaning of a free word-combination. It is the result of figurative metaphoric reconsideration of a word-combination.

To come to one's sense -to change one's mind;

To come home - to hit the mark;

To fall into a rage - to get angry.

Phraseological unities are characterized by the semantic duality. One can't define for sure the semantic meaning of separately taken phraseological unities isolated from the context, because these word-combinations may be used as free in the direct meaning and as phraseological in the figurative meaning.

Phraseological combination (collocation) is a construction or an expression in which every word has absolutely clear independent meaning while one of the components has a bound meaning [8, p.212].

It means that phraseological combinations contain one component used in its direct meaning while the other is used figuratively.

To make an attempt - to try;

To make haste - to hurry;

To offer an apology - to beg pardon.

Some linguists who stick to the general understanding of phraseology and refer to it communicational units (sentences) and winged words, define the fourth type of phraseological units.

Phraseological expression is a stable by form and usage semantically divisible construction, which components are words with free meanings.

East or West, home is best;

Marriages are made in heaven;

Still waters run deep.

Phraseological expressions are proverbs, sayings and aphorisms of famous politicians, writers, scientists and artists. They are concise sentences, expressing some truth as ascertained by experience of wisdom and familiar to all. They are often metaphoric in character and include elements of implicit information well understood without being formally present in the discourse.

Prof. A.I. Smirnitsky worked out structural classification of phraseological units, comparing them with words. He points out one-top units which he compares with derived words because derived words have only one root morpheme. He also points out two-top units which he compares with compound words because in compound words we usually have two root morphemes.

Among one-top units he points out three structural types:

a) units of the type “to give up” (verb + postposition type); To back up - to support; To drop out - to miss, to omit.

b) units of the type “to be tired”. Some of these units remind the Passive Voice in their structure but they have different prepositions with them, while in the Passive Voice we can have only prepositions «by» or «with»: To be tired of; To be surprised at. There are also units in this type which remind free word-groups of the type “to be young”: To be a kin to; To be aware of.

The difference between them is that the adjective “young” can be used as an attribute and as a predicative in a sentence, while the nominal component in such units can act only as a predicative. In these units the verb is the grammar centre and the second component is the semantic centre:

c) prepositional-nominal phraseological units: On the doorstep - quite near; On the nose - exactly[9, p.111].

These units are equivalents of unchangeable words: prepositions, conjunctions, adverbs, that is why they have no grammar centre, their semantic centre is the nominal part. Among two-top units A.I. Smirnitsky points out the following structural types:

a) attributive-nominal such as: A month of Sundays;

A millstone round one's neck.

Units of this type are noun equivalents and can be partly or perfectly idiomatic (if the expression is idiomatic, then we must consider its components in the aggregate, not separately). In partly idiomatic units (phrasisms) sometimes the first component is idiomatic: high road; in other cases the second component is idiomatic: first night.

In many cases both components are idiomatic: red tape, blind alley, bed of nail, shot in the arm and many others.

b) verb-nominal phraseological units:

To read between the lines; To sweep under the carpet.

The grammar centre of such units is the verb, the semantic centre in many cases is the nominal component: to fall in love. In some units the verb is both the grammar and the semantic centre: not to know the ropes. These units can be perfectly idiomatic as well: to burn one's boats, to vote with one's feet, to take to the cleaners' etc.

c) phraseological repetitions, such as: Now or never;

Part and parcel (integral part).

Such units can be built on antonyms: ups and downs, back and forth; often they are formed by means of alliteration: cakes and ale, as busy as a bee. Components in repetitions are joined by means of conjunctions. These units are equivalents of adverbs or adjectives and have no grammar centre. They can also be partly or perfectly idiomatic: cool as a cucumber (partly), bread and butter (perfectly).

Phraseological units the same as compound words can have more than two tops (stems in compound words): To be a shadow of one's own self, At one's own sweet will. Phraseological units can be classified as parts of speech. This classification was suggested by I.V. Arnold. Here we have the following groups:

a) nominal phrases or noun phraseologisms denoting an object, a person or a living being: Bullet train; The root of the trouble.

b) verbal phrases or verb phraseologisms denoting an action, a state or a feeling:

To sing like a lark; To put one's best foot forward.

c) adjectival phrases or adjective phraseologisms denoting a quality: As good as gold; Red as a cherry.

d) adverbial phrases or adverb phraseological units, such as: From head to foot; Like a dog with two tails.

e) prepositional phrases or preposition phraseological units: In the course of; On the stroke of.

f) conjunctional phrases or conjunction phraseological units: As long as; On the other hand.

g) interjectional phrases or interjection phraseological units: Catch me!; Well, I never!

In I.V.Arnold's classification there are also sentence equivalents, proverbs, sayings and quotations: “The sky is the limit”, “What makes him tick”, “I am easy”. Proverbs are usually metaphorical: “Too many cooks spoil the broth”, while sayings are as a rule non-metaphorical: “Where there is a will there is a way”.

It would be interesting now to look at phraseological units from a different angle, namely: how are all these treasures of the language approached by the linguistic science? The very miscellaneous nature of these units suggests the first course of action: they must be sorted out and arranged in certain classes which possess identical characteristics. But which characteristics should be chosen as the main criteria for such a classification system? The structural? The semantic? Those of degree of stability? Of origin?

It should be clear from the previous description that a phraseological unit is a complex phenomenon with a number of important features, which can therefore be approached from different points of view. Hence, there exist a considerable number of different classification systems devised by different scholars and based on different principles[10, p.155].

The traditional and oldest principle for classifying phraseological units is based on their original content and might be alluded to as "thematic" (although the term is not universally accepted). The approach is widely used in numerous English and American guides to idiom, phrase books, etc. On this principle, idioms are classified according to their sources of origin, "source" referring to the particular sphere of human activity, of life of nature, of natural phenomena, etc. So, L. P. Smith gives in his classification groups of idioms used by sailors, fishermen, soldiers, hunters and associated with the realia, phenomena and conditions of their occupations. In Smith's classification we also find groups of idioms associated with domestic and wild animals and birds, agriculture and cooking. There are also numerous idioms drawn from sports, arts, etc.

This principle of classification is sometimes called "etymological". The term does not seem appropriate since we usually mean something different when we speak of the etymology of a word or word-group: whether the word (or word-group) is native or borrowed, and, if the latter, what is the source of borrowing. It is true that Smith makes a special study of idioms borrowed from other languages, but that is only a relatively small part of his classification system. The general principle is not etymological.

Smith points out that word-groups associated with the sea and the life of seamen are especially numerous in English vocabulary. Most of them have long since developed metaphorical meanings which have no longer any association with the sea or sailors. Here are some examples, To be all at sea -- to be unable to understand; to be in a state of ignorance or bewilderment about something (e. g. How can I be a judge in a situation in which I am all at sea? I'm afraid I'm all at sea in this problem). V. H. Collins remarks that the metaphor is that of a boat tossed about, out of control, with its occupants not knowing where they are. To sink or swim -- to fail or succeed (e. g. It is a case of sink or swim. All depends on his own effort.) In deep water -- in trouble or danger. In low water, on the rocks -- in strained financial circumstances. To be in the same boat with somebody -- to be in a situation in which people share the same difficulties and dangers (e. g. I don't like you much, but seeing that we're in the same boat I'll back you all I can). The metaphor is that of passengers in the life-boat of a sunken ship.

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