Размещено на http://www.allbest.ru/

GOU Gymnasium №1518

Football Hooliganism and the ways of curing it

Contents

1. The History of Football

2. The uefa history

3. Cross-national variations

Literature

1. The History of Football

One of the earliest examples of a game similar to football existed in ancient China. Documents reveal that around 200 BC a game called Tsu Chu (literally 'kick ball') was played with two 30ft-high bamboo poles acting as goals.

The Greeks, for whom ball games were an essential party of life, played a form of football as early as 4 BC. The game was known as pheninda and involved kicking the ball, running with it and handling it.

The Romans followed the Greeks' example and called their game hapastum. This was played on a rectangular field, between two teams who defended the lines which marked the ends of the field. The object of the game was to throw the ball from player to player, moving forward all the time, and eventually to throw it beyond the opponents' 'goal-line'. The defending side was allowed to tackle and kick.

There are other examples of early versions of the game evolving elsewhere around the world. In Japan, records show that around the fifth century AD a game called Kemari, which involved eight players ceremonially kicking the ball back to one another across a ground 14 metres square.

In Italy a similar game was developed in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries called Calcio (calciare means to kick in Italian) which involved two sides playing in Florence's town square on the feast day of St John the Baptist, the city's patron saint.

The evolution of the game in England appears to have its roots in holy days. Written evidence confirms that in the twelfth century a game with a ball was played on Shrove Tuesday in Ashbourne, Derbyshire. On such occasions the whole town would get involved and the game could last for days. The purpose of the game was to gain possession of the ball and deliver it back to the town or parish. In many other places, Shrovetide football lasted until the latter half of the nineteenth century.

Throughout the centuries English monarchs tried to ban this version of the game but Edward II, III, Richard II, Henry V and Elizabeth I were all unsuccessful in preventing the continued interest. In the eighteenth century, the game was taken up by the public schools who, realising the importance of team sport, invented their own versions of the game. By 1848 the first serious attempts were being made by Cambridge University to set up a common set of laws. Fifteen years later, The Football Association was founded and Association Football, the game that is played around the world today, was born.

Birth of The F.A.

Historical orthodoxy suggests football has been played in England since the thirteenth century. In those days, football was little more than an excuse for a riot, a parochial, lawless affair with village pitted against village with unlimited numbers of people chasing through streets, across fields and through bogs in pursuit of the ball.

The real starting point of modern football came with the expansion of the public schools in the middle of the nineteenth century. At schools like Harrow, Eton, Charterhouse, Winchester, Westminster and Shrewsbury, organised games became a vital part of the curriculum, with their emphasis on order, discipline and team spirit.

The football played by these schools, while similar in form, was different in a number of technical ways: each framed its own set of laws but some played in the school cloisters, some on pitches and some even allowed the ball to be handled. The boys who played football at these schools at this time were to be the founders and leaders of The Football Association in the years to come.

Formation of The F.A.

Undergraduates at Cambridge University, where many of these boys went after school, first made an attempt at unifying the rules, in 1846 and two years later. These were then spread to the outside world, with graduates playing a vital part in convincing clubs to move away from their provincial outlook and adopt a common code. Thanks to the missionary work carried out by these individuals clubs started to crop up around the country.

In 1863, following the publication of Thring's (a housemaster at Uppingham) 'Simplest Rules' and the formation of a number of clubs, the need for concerted action became imperative.

On the 26 October 1863 captains and representatives of several London teams and suburban clubs met at the Freemason's Tavern in Lincoln's Inn Fields to codify the rules "for the regulation of the game of football". The teams represented were: No Names of Kilburn, Barnes, the War Office, Crusaders, Forest (Leytonstone), Percival House (Blackheath), Crystal Palace, Blackheath, Kensington School, Surbiton, Blackheath Proprietary School and Charterhouse.

Ebenezer Cobb Morley proposed the formation of The Football Association, which was carried by 11 votes to one. The Football Association was born, with Morley as its first Secretary.

Development

The drawing up and publication of the rules was the initial priority of The F.A. and, after the withdrawal of Blackheath over the issue of 'hacking', these were published in November 1863.

The F.A.'s early influence on the game at large was not dramatic or even widespread and was mainly confined to organising inter-county friendlies. This all changed on the 20 July 1871 when Charles Alcock (Secretary of The F.A. between 1870-95) proposed that "a Challenge Cup should be established in connection with the Association, for which all clubs belonging to the Association should be invited to compete". The F.A. Cup, football's first national tournament, was born. Fifteen clubs competed in the first F.A. Cup in 1871-72 and the notion of competition in football spread rapidly. Wanderers beat the Royal Engineers 1-0 at the Oval in front of 2,000 spectators. Then, on November 30 1872, again thanks to C.W Alcock, the first formal international between England and Scotland took place in Glasgow.

In July 1885, professional football was legalised by The F.A. in response to the increasing number of working class players in the game and the revenue gained from rising attendances. The number of teams being created illustrated the need for further organisation and in September 1888, with The F.A.'s backing, the Football League was formed. A second division was added in 1892. Modern football was well and truly born.

The International Story

The modern game began in England but interest soon spread around Europe and other continents. FIFA (Federation Internationale de Football) was created in France in 1904 as a recognition of this growth on an international level and is the football world's governing body. Seven national associations - Belgium, Denmark, Spain, France, Netherlands, Sweden and Switzerland - were the founders. FIFA launched the Olympic Football title in 1924 and the World Cup in 1930. The first ever FIFA World Cup for women was held in China in 1991.

There are six continental confederations (Asian Football Confederation - AFC, Confederation Africaine de Football - CAF, Confederacion Norte-Centroamericany del Caribe de Futbol - CONCACAF, Union des Associations Europeenes de Football - UEFA, Confederacion Sudamericana de Futbol - CONMEBOL, Oceania Football Confederation - OFC) which organise club and national team competitions for their respective continents. The English Football Association is affiliated to UEFA. UEFA (Union des Associations Europeennes de Football) was founded on the 15 June 1954. In 1989, the first UEFA Championship for national women's teams was held.

Over 100 years after the formation of The Football Association, football is the most popular sport in the world, played by nearly 250 million people, including 40 million women. The numbers of spectators in the stadiums and of television viewers amounts to billions.

2. The uefa history

The UEFA Cup grew out of an idea conceived by Switzerland's Ernst Thommen who, along with Italy's Ottorino Barrasi - both future FIFA vice-presidents - and England's Sir Stanley Rous, the future president of FIFA, created a tournament for representative sides from European cities that regularly held trade fairs.

Forerunner

This forerunner to the UEFA Cup, the Inter-Cities Fairs Cup, was founded on the 18 April 1955, two weeks after the founding of the European Champion Clubs' Cup. The first Fairs Cup involved teams from Barcelona, Basle, Birmingham, Copenhagen, Frankfurt, Lausanne, Leipzig, London, Milan and Zagreb. The original tournament lasted three years, with matches timed to coincide with trade fairs. Barcelona, using players purely from FC Barcelona, beat a London representative side 8-2 on aggregate in the final.

Club involvement

For the second tournament the organisers reverted to club participation but the teams still had to come from cities staging trade fairs. Sixteen clubs took part in the 1958-60 tournament, after which it was staged on an annual basis. By 1962 the number of entrants had risen to 32; there are now over 100. In its early years, teams from southern Europe dominated, notably Barcelona, who won it three times, and Valencia CF who won it twice. In 1968 Leeds United AFC became the first northern European club to win the trophy, heralding a run of six successive wins by English clubs.

Name change

The fifth of these was in 1971/72, won by Tottenham Hotspur FC, and the first to be known as the UEFA Cup. The change of name was recognition of the fact the competition was now run by UEFA and no longer associated with the trade fairs. During the 1970s German, Dutch, Belgian and Swedish sides began to successfully compete with the English and between 1968 and 1984 only one team from the south - Juventus FC in 1977 - managed to disrupt the dominance of the northern Europeans.

Italian success

But following back-to-back victories by Real Madrid CF in the mid-1980s, Italian clubs took control in the 1990s. Starting with SSC Napoli's victory in 1989, Italian sides won the UEFA Cup eight times in eleven seasons, with Internazionale FC winning it three times, before Galatasaray SK claimed it as Turkey's first European club prize in 2000. With the exception of 1964 and 1965, the final had, like the previous rounds, always been a two-legged, affair. The format changed permanently to a one-tie final in 1998 when Inter beat S.S. Lazio 3-0 at the Parc des Princes in Paris. Inter, Juventus and Liverpool share the record of three UEFA Cup final successes apiece.

Competitions merge

From 1999/2000, domestic cup winners also qualified for the UEFA Cup after the UEFA Cup Winners' Cup was disbanded. In addition, clubs eliminated from the third qualifying round of the UEFA Champions League and the eight third-placed finishers at the end of the group stage of the same competition entered the competition. The UEFA Cup also includes three Fair Play representatives, three UEFA Intertoto Cup winners and winners of some selected domestic league cup competitions. A group stage was introduced for the first time in 2004/05.

Bertoni trophy

The trophy itself, which weighs 15kg and is silver on a yellow marble plinth, was designed and crafted by the Bertoni workshops in Milan for the 1972 final at a cost of €23,000. The UEFA Cup has no handles, its beauty lying in its simplicity. Just above the plinth, a group of players seem to be jostling for the ball. In fact they are supporting the octagonal cup which is emblazoned with the UEFA emblem.

Executive summary

The report contains a review of research and theoretical approaches to football violence in Europe. The historical development of the problems in various countries is outlined. Specific attention is given to the role of the media, the emergence of overt racism at football matches and the alleged influence of alcohol consumption on violent behaviour. The content of each section of the report is summarised below.

History

Forms of 'folk-football' existed in other European countries (such as the German Knappen and Florentine calcio in costume), but the roots of modern football are in these violent English rituals.

The much more disciplined game introduced to continental Europe in 1900s was the reformed pastime of the British aristocracy. Other European countries adopted this form of the game, associated with Victorian values of fair-play and retrained enthusiasm. Only two periods in British history have been relatively free of football-related violence: the inter-war years and the decade following the Second World War. football game violence hooliganism

The behaviour now known as 'football hooliganism' originated in England in the early 1960s, and has been linked with the televising of matches (and of pitch-invasions, riots etc.) and with the 'reclaiming' of the game by the working classes.

In other European countries, similar patterns of behaviour emerged about 10 years later, in the early 1970s. Some researchers argue that a similar 'proletarianisation' of the game was involved, but there is little consensus on this issue, and much disagreement on the extent to which continental youth were influenced by British hooligans.

Theory and research perspectives

It is suggested that the focus purely on behaviour at football games in Europe may be too limiting. The subject might be better considered in the context of the more general rise in juvenile crime and delinquency in many countries and the emergence of new deviant sub-cultures

As you can see on the bar graph the percent of Football violence has risen a lot. In 1990 it was only 10% of all crimes. During the next 5 years it went up slightly. In 2000 it grew by 8% from 1995.In fact in 2005 it peaked.

3. Cross-national variations

There has been no systematic recording of football-related violent incidents in any European country. The lack of quantitative or reliable empirical data on football-related violence, and particularly the lack of comparable data, makes assessment of the variations and similarities between European countries very difficult, but some general conclusions can be drawn from the available evidence.

It is clear that some form of disorderly behaviour has occurred in virtually every country in which football is played. Disorder of some kind appears to be a near-universal and seemingly inevitable accompaniment to the game.

Football-related disorder is not, however, necessarily of the same nature, or influenced by the same causal factors, in all of the cultures in which it occurs. Even the most dogmatic academics have come to admit that 'universal' explanations cannot accommodate all cross-cultural variations.

Both the extent and the nature of football-related violence are influenced by different historical, social, economic, political and cultural factors in different European countries. Social class has been a significant factor in England, for example, religious sectarianism in Scotland and Northern Ireland, sub-nationalist politics in Spain, historical regional antagonisms in Italy, etc.

There are, however, significant cross-national similarities in the 'stages of development' of the problem. Most countries experience an initial stage of sporadic violence directed mainly at referees and players, followed by a second stage involving violence between opposing groups of fans and against police/security officers inside the stadium, and a third stage involving an increase in violent encounters between these groups outside the stadium.

In most European countries, football-related violence is currently a predominantly internal problem, with the majority of incidents occurring at club-level matches, while supporters of the national team abroad are generally better-behaved. The English are an obvious exception to this rule, and rivalries between some other nations (e.g. Germany and the Netherlands) have led to violence, but these incidents seem recently to have diminished.

Internally, however, fans tend to cause more trouble at 'away' matches than when supporting their team at home. This is a common pattern across Europe.

Apart from Britain, the nations currently experiencing the most significant problems of football-related violence are: Italy, Germany, the Netherlands and Belgium. The available data indicate that levels of football-related violence in these countries are roughly similar, with incidents occurring at around 10% of matches (or around 10% of supporters classifiable as 'violent').

Austria, Sweden and Denmark also experience some problems with football-related violence, although these appear to be on a smaller scale. In Denmark, a new style of non-violent, carnivalesque fan-culture, promoted by the 'Roligans' (a pun on 'hooligans', from 'rolig' meaning 'peaceful'), is gaining popularity.

France, Spain, Portugal and Switzerland have also experienced episodes of violence - although football hooliganism cannot be said to be a major problem in these countries. In France and Switzerland, the theatrical, flamboyant Italian style of support (but largely without the passionate hostilities) has superseded the dour, and more violent, English style.

Sporadic violence has also been reported in Greece, the Czech Republic, Albania and Turkey. Some of these may be isolated incidents, but there is no room for complacency, as these countries may currently be in the early 'stages' of the development pattern outlined above.

Football hooliganism is clearly not an exclusively 'British Disease'. Nor can the British hooligans be held entirely responsible for 'spreading' the disease in Europe. Research findings show that while some of the more violent European fans regard the English hooligans as role-models, others - including the Scottish 'Tartan Army' and the Danish Roligans have quite deliberately adopted a very different style of behaviour.

Media coverage

Racism

In Britain, racist chanting at matches still occurs, but at nowhere near the levels it reached in the 1970s and 80s, when black players were often greeted with monkey-noises and bananas. The recent decline may be due in part to campaigns designed to combat racism, such as the 'Let's Kick Racism Out of Football' campaign.

Elsewhere in Europe - particularly in Germany and Austria - there are some indications that the problem may be more persistent. In one survey, 20% of German fans reported sympathies with the neo-Nazi movement. In many cases, however, Nazi symbols and slogans may be used purely to shock and provoke, without any underlying political conviction.

The problem is certainly being taken seriously across Europe, and a number of initiatives have been launched, including the 'When Racism Wins, The Sport Loses' campaign in the Netherlands, 'No al Razzismo' in Italy and the Europe-wide initiative, 'All Different - All Equal'.

The success of these initiatives is difficult to measure, but the UK has certainly seen a recent decrease in racist behaviour at football grounds. While the existing campaigns in different countries may prove effective, there have also been calls for a more systematic, pan-European approach. A recent report to the European Parliament outlines recommendations for Europe-wide co-operation to combat racism.

Now on this graph you can see how many people were involved in Football Hooliganism and against it in Moscow. Starting from 2000 there were more than 25,000 people involved in organized Football Hooliganism. The government and private org. could only provide 13,000 to fight against them. During the next 2 years the number of hools rose sharply. But the government still couldn't control the situation. In 2004 because of changes in anti football hooliganism services the number of special AFH (Anti Football Hooliganism) police rose a little bit. Now Hools reached the peak with the number of 211,000 involved. As you can see , we can't do anything to cure FH (Football Hooliganism) right now. Reforms should be made in the existing system.

Alcohol and football violence

Football violence in Britain is often reported in the media as resulting from excessive alcohol consumption. This view, however, is not shared by the large majority of social scientists who have conducted research on hooliganism. Neither is it the view popularly held in many other European countries.

Little research has focused specifically on the role of alcohol in football hooliganism. This is because it has been considered, at best, a peripheral issue in most studies. Some investigators, however, have recently claimed that drinking can 'aggravate' football violence and have supported calls for further restrictions at football grounds. Little evidence has been provided to support their claims.

Proposals for Europe-wide restrictions on the availability of alcohol at football games have recently been made by the European Parliament, although the legal status of such proposals is currently unclear. Such an approach, however, ignores the wide cross-national variations in the consumption of alcohol by football fans and its apparent effects.

The case of Scottish fans, whose behaviour has changed markedly for the better over the past 10 years, despite continuing patterns of 'heavy' drinking, is considered in some detail. It is clear that alcohol-related behaviours are not immutable and can change in relatively short periods of time.

The example of the Danish Roligans is also considered. These have drinking patterns very similar to those of English fans, put present few problems to the authorities. Drunkenness among the Danish fans is typically accompanied by good humour and positive sociability.

Other groups of fans, such as the Italian Ultras, rarely drink to excess when attending football matches and the role of alcohol in football violence in that country is thought to be completely insignificant.

Attention is given to a study in the United States which suggests that restrictions on the availability of alcohol at certain times may lead to increased problems due to 'compensatory' drinking at higher levels in the periods immediately before and after the restricted period.

It is concluded that restrictions on fans' drinking will have little impact on levels of hooliganism and, in some cases, may be counter-productive. Future research should be directed towards the modification of alcohol-related behaviours.

Tackling football violence

I interviewed the students of our gymnasium. The question was: “What anti football hooliganism organizations do you know? Are they popular in our country ?”.This pie chart shows that this problem is essential now.

The Solution

In my course work I want to find the answer, how to cure football fanatism.

There are several ways of doing it. One and the most common is for the government to make a special organization that takes care of football hooliganism. There are already few organization's that analyze football fanatism. For example AFFO (anti footbal fanatism organisation) or FFA (Fare Football association). But they are private and don't get enough funding for their researches and actions.

The aim of establishing such a company is to keep FH in justice. There must be a special center, which looks after organized FH. (Organized FH*) It is not just a group of football fans, it's more like criminal bands, mafiosie or something. They have got their own leader, their own structure... They can even find people, who will pay money for their violent actions.

Except the centre their must be a special service, like the police, that will do all the messy work. (AFHSQAD).

Also I would recommend to make a special camera system, that will record all things happening near the stadiums, before and after football matches.

A special law should be taken.

There is also one more way to stop violent FH. It is to leave the hools alone, because often the police provoke them to attack.

Students of 10th-11th forms involved in sport movement.

In our school we also organized a movement against hooliganism and violence. We hold and attend different sport competitions in our district, city. We persuade that everybody should be respected, even if they are your opponents. We try to draw people and keep them here. We involve the spectators to do some sports during the interval. Fans of our basketball and football teams usually organize cheer dances. We also issue banners and flyers to encourage the players. On the 17th march in the year of 2006 the internet discussion was held in our school. The theme was “The Youth Problems”. The topic of hooliganism was touched upon.

The bar graph shows that only 20 people were involved in our movement at the beginning of our activity. In the year of 2005 it rose by 40 people and in the year of 2006 it peaked. The conclusion is that we are on the right way. Join us and we can prevent any act of violence and hooliganism.

Literature

1. The Official History of The Football Association - Butler B. (MacDonald Queen Anne, 1991)

2. The Official Illustrated History of the F.A. Cup - Butler B. (Headline, 1996)

3. Football Violence Face 2 Face - Robert Haggis (Morrow 1999)

4. The Story of football - Anderson (Morrow 1997)

5. Football - Owens, Thomas , Helmer (21st Century Bks. 1998)

6. The Illustrated Rules of Football - Patey (Ideal children's books 1995)

7. Mark.Football - Stewart (Watts 1998)

Размещено на Allbest.ru