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Comparative analysis of case in English and Uzbek



Content

Chapter 1. The original types of cases in two different languages

1.1 Demonstration of diverse sides of case in the noun

1.2 A specific inflection of a word depending on its function in the sentence

1.3 The presence of additional appearances and explanations

Chapter 2. Comparative analysis of case in english and uzbek

2.1 Feedbacks of finding difficulties at the teaching of cases

2.2 Diverse opinions about modern case system in two languages

2.3 Classifying the cases of Uzbek and English inflexion words

Conclusion

Bibliography



Introduction

Now knowledge of having English becomes vital ability for all citizens of our nation. As our head of country who laid significant emphasis on teaching and learning foreign languages we can see the immense changings in our motherland. At president's disposal the law about “Measures of improving the system of learning foreign languages” was inculcated upon our education process on December 10, 2012. On the authority of the legal code, our government took special notice of pupils' and students' teaching more than before.

“Note that the complex system of teaching foreign languages was founded in the putting into practice field of the law “About Education” and the national program on training specialists of Republic of Uzbekistan. That was founded for the system that directed at the integrating of republic within the world and training of intellectual and modern young generation.” “Chet tillar tizimini o'rgatishni yanada takomillashtirish chora-tadbirlari” pq1875. 2012-yil 10-dekabr

English is a global language in the most part of the planet. Especially, vast majority of people make use of the language every day. This language is significant for education because some people from other countries whose speech doesn't appropriate to English use it to talk with people from other nations. Citizens put it into practice in diverse areas. For instance, businessmen can use it in foreign trade, language of computer technologies, film and something in that ilk. Some would claim that the knowledge of speaking an bring us gain of great successes. Because, in this case, you can be turned into worldwide human. And then you can exchange anything with people through all over the globe, because you may upgrade exchanges in the career.

Thanks to our leader of state that teaching system intentionally improved from the years of our freedom. Accordingly, we should find out international opinions and other well-organized ideas about teaching.

Actuality of the theme

Although majority of students are proficient in general reading and writing, many do not have a command of English grammar. The educating of cases is not so difficult part as other grammatical examples but is considered as a significant section of grammar. People make use of the cases from all over the world everyday. To put it briefly, learners are improved in the direction of perfection and also freedom of thinking as people proceed because of the stage. But this growth is not as a rule a sharp and sudden one, nor does the psychology of the students undergo any great change during the various levels of the fundamental principles that underlie the work of the university remain the same from year to year. The need in every level is to bring about academic growth by providing near and broader experiences.

While working at school found out how difficult for the students of the secondary school, definite the national groups, to learn English, because there are no prepositions in Uzbek, but in English we have. If we talk about gender we have, of course some similarities. And when, I tried them to explain some examples in comparison they learned those words better than I thought.

Aim of the qualification work

The significant purpose of my qualification paper is to supply with a particular information about use of cases in English and Uzbek language. In addition, I must remind the aim of teaching pupils or students not only providing with the knowledge of knowing language but also supplying them with practical, educational and improvable experience. The objective of education is to take into consideration all four skills and development and improvement the young generations' abilities of interpretation and so on. Nowadays, we can say modern countries like Canada, United States and United Kingdom are at the top of their education system. And, to my mind, our structure of learning an compete with them on the field of teaching.

Objective and subject of the work

The objective of this part is to procedure unusual ways for educating how to make comparative analysis of cases in English and Uzbek languages. The investigation of subject concentrates upon use of cases in modern English and Uzbek languages. Furthermore, the research has its own peculiarities of usage in different spheres of grammar.

Novelty of the work

Qualification work embraces a wide range of question to some extent in modern linguistics. My work is aimed at giving broad information about use of case in two languages and their advantages or disadvantages.

Literature overview of the work

Initial information of the qualification work is given from the works of great scholars such as: N. Bo'ronov, A.T. Irisqulov, N. Hamroyev, Comparative typology V.D. Arakin, M. «Prosveshenie» 1991 from the above mentioned data, A History of English by Barbara A. Fennell). And also I'm inclined to get information from the sources of Internet.

Structure of the qualification work

The qualification paper includes initial part, two chapters, conclusion and a catalogue of used datas'. Initially, you can get information about how our educational system wasdeveloped and other decrees of the lider of Uzbekistan at the beginning part of the work.

Moreover, you will be given a wide data about diverse and additional cases in the next section.

In addition to this, the second chapter is aimed at showing initial data like giving feedbacks and also classifying on the authority of my theme in two diverse languages. To sum up, I made use various books with facts and datas that can be found at the end of my qualification work with the onclusion and bibliography parts. Additionally, my work omposed of 60 sheet of papers.

Theoretical value of the research

The pyhothetical quality of the investigation deals with the questions likeimpratical, speculative or unintested values. This part is also a matter of great concern to the qualification paper of mine.

Practical value of the research

The most valuable matter of my task is to use new methods in some educational institute that can be teached according to the types of cases. Additionally, the methods will be givenbelow that can be useful for teachers who are going to make use of this throughout his or her system of teaching.



Chapter 1. The original types of cases in two different languages

1.1 Demonstration of diverse sides of case in the noun

A noun is a part of speech that identifies a person, place, thing or idea. Nouns are incredibly important in spoken and written English. In current foreign language the question of case is decreased to the debate whether the case category remains as such. Due to the fact that, the difficulty has always been much disputed. The result of the question turns principally on scientists' analysis of the word “case”. Consequently, minority of the professors observe it to be realizable to talk just in the case as a paradigm of a word structured by artificial markers by endings. And also the vast majority of linguists inclined to think that the word “analytical case” is supported: analytical cases are organized by prepositions introducing a noun. This section is represented in language by the counteraction of the form “-s”, as a rule, denoted the possessive case, or more usually, the genitive case, to the not presented form of the noun, regularly called the common case.

The main aim of the “-s” to differentiate in writing the singular noun in the possessive case from the plural noun in the common case: women's curiosity, student's knowledge, teacher's experience. Majority of the possessive of plural nouns stays phonetically not cleared: some exceptions concern only some of the irregular plurals. And we can see a few examples following: the actresses' dresses, the mates' help, the childrens' room.

Naturally, the shape of the English nouns indicated as “case forms” link to one another in an unusually strange manner. The irregularity is that the general form is totally imprecise from the semantic point of view. Whereas the possessive form is restricted to the functions which have a parallel expression by prepositional constructions. Apart from this, the common form, as appears from the presentation, is also capable of rendering the possessive semantics, which makes the whole of the possessive case into a kind of subsidiary element in the grammatical system of the English noun. This feature stamps English noun declension as something utterly different from every conceivable declension in principle. Due to the fact that, the inflectional oblique case forms as normally and imperatively expressing the immediate functional parts of the ordinary sentence in “noun-declensional” languages do not exist in English at all.

As a general rule, investigation the category of case in English has become one of the vexed problems of theoretical discussion in the course of linguistic.

Four special views advanced at various times by different scholars should be considered as successive stages in the analysis of this problem.

The first view may be called the “theory of positional cases”. This theory is directly connected with the old grammatical tradition, and its traces can be seen in many contemporary school textbooks in the English-speaking countries. Linguistic formulations of this theory may be found in the works of Nesfield, Deutschbein, Bryant and others. In accord with the theory of positional cases, the unchangeable forms of the noun are differentiated as different cases by virtue of the functional positions occupied by the noun in the sentence.

Generally, the English noun, on the analogy of classical Latin grammar, would distinguish, besides the inflectional possessive case, also the non-inflectional, i.e. purely positional cases: nominative, vocative, dative and accusative. The non-inflectional cases of the noun are taken to be supported by the parallel inflectional cases of the personal pronouns:

Nominative (subject) - Things happen

Vocative (address) - Are you here, Anvar?

Dative (indirect object) - He gave them freedom.

Accusative (direct object) - She carried out an ambition.

Or prepositional object - Dan moved toward the door.

The blunder of this theory is that it substitutes the functional characteristics of the part of the sentence for the morphological features of the word class, whereas the case form, by definition, is a variable morphological form of the noun.

Especially, the functional meanings rendered by cases can be expressed in language by other grammatical means, in particular, by word-order.

The next opinion may be called the “theory of prepositional cases”. It is also connected with the old school grammar teaching, and was advanced as a logical supplement to the positional view of the case.

Consequently, combinations of nouns with prepositions in certain object and attributive collocations should be understood as morphological case forms. To these belong first of all the “dative” case (to + N, for + N) and the possessive case (of + N). These prepositions are inflectional prepositions, i.e. grammatical elements equivalent to case forms. The would-be prepositional cases are generally taken as coexisting with positional cases, together with the classical inflectional genitive completing the case system of the English noun. The prepositional theory, though somewhat better grounded than the positional theory, nevertheless can hardly pass a serious linguistic trial. In other languages all prepositions do require definite cases of nouns (prepositional case-government). It should follow from this that not only the of, to and fог-phrases but also all other prepositional phrases in English must be regarded as “analytical” cases. As a result of this approach, illogical redundancy in terminology would arise: each prepositional phrase would bear then another, additional name of “prepositional case”, the total number of the “said” cases running into dozens upon dozens without any gain either to theory or practice. Not surprisingly, prepositions may have various meanings depending on the context, which makes it possible for a preposition to correlate with several cases. For example, in English the preposition by, formerly a purely local form (He stood by the window) came to acquire a sense of means or instrument.

The Oxford English Dictionary suggests that this preposition acquired its instrumental sense via expressions such as She read by candlelight where the phrase, originally a locative (Where did she read?), was reinterpreted as instrumental (How did she read it?). It is not hard to find situations that allow a locative or instrumental interpretation and which could facilitate a locative or instrumental form adopting both functions. Here are some examples: wash the cloth in/with water, cook meat on/in/with fire, come on/by horse. The third view of the English noun case recognizes a limited inflectional system of two cases in English, one of them featured and the other one un-featured. This view may be called the “limited case theory”. This theory is at present most broadly accepted among linguists both in this country and abroad. It was formulated by such scholars as Sweet, Jespersen, and has since been radically developed by Smirnitsky, Barkhudarov and others.

In broad terms, the limited case theory is based on the explicit oppositional approach to the recognition of grammatical categories. In the system of the English case the functional mark is defined, which differentiates the two case forms: the possessive or genitive form as the strong member of the categorical opposition and the common, or “non-genitive” form as the weak member of the categorical opposition. The opposition is shown as being effected in full with animate nouns, though a restricted use with inanimate nouns is also taken into account. Grammatical category of case - GC which marks the semantic role of the noun in the sentence & finds a grammatical expression in the language. Case is the immanent morphological category of the noun, showing the relations of the object to other objects and phenomena.

Moreover, iun modern foreign language is limited to the system of 2 cases: common & possessive which replects the relations between Ws on the level of the phrase. In highly inflectional, synthetic lges the relations bween verb and other parts of the [] are expressed morphologically. Case relations may also be expressed syntactically: by the position of the N in the in its reference to the position of the verb.

1.2 A specific inflection of a word depending on its function in the sentence

In today's global world, the importance of English can't be denied and ignored. Since English is the most common language spoken everywhere. With the help of developing technology, English has been ruled a major role in many sectors. Including medicine, engineering, and education, which, in my opinion, is the most arena where English is needed.

Initially, the study of the structure of phrases, sentences and language of ancient English may seem more adaptable than current English by reason of the declensions of the nouns. The case endings told the function of the word in the sentence, so word order was not very significant. But as the stress began to move to this syllable of words, the endings were not pronounced as clearly and began to diminish from the language. In broad terms, in modern English, word order is very important, because we have no longer declensions to show case distinctions. Instead we use prepositions. The general word order was subject-verb-object, but it did vary in a few instances:

If an object is a pronoun, it often precedes the verb

A sentence begins with an adverb, the subject often follows the verb

The verb often comes at the end of a subordinate clause

Additionally, pronunciation was characterized by a predictable stress pattern on the first syllable. The length of the vowels was phonemic as there were 7 long and 7 short vowels. There were also two front rounded vowels that are no longer used in modern English, [i:] and [?:]. The i-mutation occurred if there was a front vowel in the ending, then the root vowel became fronted. For example, fot becomes fot+i = fet (This helps to explain why feet is the plural of foot.)

Case

To begin with, case is a property of pronouns and nouns, and expresses their relationship to the rest of the sentence. Case has three values (two of which do not apply to nouns):

· subjective (pronouns only): when the word is the subject

· objective (pronouns only): when the word is the object

· possessive (pronouns and nouns): when the word indicates possession (ownership)

Furthermore, the problem of the number of case in English has given rise to differ theories which were based on the different ways of approaching the description of English grammatical structure. Case is an indication of a relation in which the noun stands to some other word.

Since, H.Sweet's conception of the number of case in English doubtful. He is not sure whether in English there are five or two cases.He writes: “English has only one inflected case,the genetive / man's,men's/,the uninflected base constituting the common case /man,men/,which is equivalent to the nominative,vocative,accusative and dative of such a language as Latin”. .AS WE see he is under a certain influence of the Latin grammar.If we treat the English language out of the facts of Latin,then we'll really have to acknowledge the existence of five cases.But the facts of English made Sweet identify only two.

From O.Curme's point of view, many case ending once used English has preserved only one,-1^st of the genetive. Apart from the genetive relation,these grammatical relations are now indicated by by the position of the noun with regard to the verb or preposition which have taken the place of the old inflectional ending/He distinguishes four cases:

1. Nominative-performs 3 functions:

Subject, predicate and direct object

2. Accusative-performs 3 functions:object, adverbial modifier, predicate.

The thief hited his head /obj./

They stayed thirty minutes /adverbial acc/

I believed to be him /predicate/

3. Dative: When an action directed toward smb:

The girl sews a uniform for her cousin.

4. Genetive: parent's…

Therefore, H. Whitehall distinguishes two cases in nouns on analogy with the pronouns which can substitute for them: nominative and objective.

He emphasizes: "The so-called possessive case is best thought of as a method of transforming a noun into a modifier"

In addition, among the Russian grammarians we find different views on the problem of case system in Modern English nouns.

As B.A. Ilyish considers that - `s is no longer a case inflexion in the classical sense of a word. Unlike such classical inflections, -`s may be attached:

a) to adverbs: yesterday's events

b) to a word group: Mary and John's apartment

c) to a whole clause: the man I saw yesterday's son.

Moreover, Ilyish concludes that the - `s morpheme gradually develops into a "form-word", a kind of particle serving to convey the meanings of belonging, possession В. Ilyish. The Structure of Modern English. M.-L,1985”.

Eventually, G.U. Vorontsova does not recognize -'s as case morpheme. She treats it as a "postposition", "a purely syntactical form - word resembling a preposition", used as a sign of syntactical dependence". Her arguments are as follows:

1. The use of-'s is optional /her brother's, of her brother/.

2. It is used with a limited group of nouns outside which it occurs very seldom.

3. -'s is used both in the singular and in the plural which is not incident to case morphemes. e.g. мальчик - а - мальчиков

4. It occurs in very few plurals, only those with the irregular formation of the plural member: oxen's, but cows

5. -'s does not make an inseparable part of the structure of word. It may be placed at some distance from the head-word of an attributive group.

As it was previously stated, Khaimovich and Rogovskaya -'s still function as a case morpheme, because:

1. The's morpheme is mostly attached to individual nouns, not noun groups.

2. It's general meaning - “the relation of a noun to another word” - is a typical case meaning.

3. The fact that -`s occurs, as a rule, with a more or less limited group of words bears testimony to its not being a "preposition like form word". The use of the preposition is determined, chiefly by the noun it introduces: on /in/ under the table

4. oxen's - cows' /z/, /и/ and /of/ alternant: identical meanings and in complementary distribution.

5. -`s not a “preposition like word” since it has no vowel as it is found in other prepositions in English.

1.3 The presence of additional appearances and explanations

An explanation is a set of statements constructed to describe a set of facts which clarifies the causes, context, and consequences of those facts. This description may establish rules or laws, and may clarify the existing ones in relation to any objects, or phenomena examined. The components of an explanation can be implicit, and interwoven with one another.

Main units of grammar are a word and a sentence. A word may be divided into morphemes, a sentence maybe divided into phrases. A morpheme a word, a phrase and a sentence are units of different levels of language structure. A unit of a higher level onsists of one or more units of a lower level. To scientists way of thinking the morphological expression of case in modern English limited to the system of 2 cases. The Category of case of the English Noun is constituted by the binary privative opposition of the common The term “common case” was first used by Henry Sweet in this book “A new English Grammar Logical and Historical” ,Part I ,1892 & possessive cases. The formal marker of the PC is the morpheme -'s [z, s, iz] The origin of it is rather obscure (a remnant of the OE Genitive case or the result of the contraction of the phrase the King his head - The King's head. This morpheme can be joined to the phrases (someone else's problems), and even s (I forgot the woman I danced yesterday's name). The apostrophy serves to distinguish in writing the singular noun in the possessive case from the plural noun in the common case. The possessive of the most of plural nouns remains phonetically unexpressed: the few exceptions concern only some of the irregular plurals: e.g. the actresses' dresses, the children's room.

The Gram Meaning of the PC is the idea of possessivity (pure possessivity my sister's money)

The secondary Gr Meanings are:

1. agent or subject of the action my brother's arrival

2. object of the action the criminal's arrest

3. authorship Shakespeare's sonnet

4. destination a sailor's uniform

5. measure a day's wait

6. location at the dean's

7. description or comparison a lion's courage

Four special views should be considered in the analysis of this problem.

1) The Theory of Positional Cases

Linguistic formulations of the theory may be found in the works of Deutschbein and other scholars. In accord with the theory of positional cases the unchangable forms of the noun may express different cases due to the functional positions occupied by the noun in the sentence.

There are grammarians, O. Curme and M. Deutschbein¹, for instance, who recognise four cases making reference to nominative, genitive, dative and accusative: the genitive can be expressed by the -'s-inflection and by the of-phrase, the dative by the preposition to and by word-order, and the accusative by word order alone. E. Sonnensсhein insists that English has a vocative case since we may propose an interjection oh before a name.

It is to be noted that the choice between the two opposite viewpoints as to the category of case in English remains a matter of linguistic approach. From the viewpoint of inflectional morphology the inadequacy of "prepositional declension" is obvious. Using Latin categories which have no relevance for English involves inventing distinctions for English and ignoring the distinctions that English makes. The meaning of "accusative" in a two-term system nominative - accusative, for instance, is different from the meaning of "accusative" in a four- or five-term system. The term "common case" seems therefore more justified than "the accusative". If we call him an "accusative" in expressions like I obey him, I am like him, It was on him, the term "accusative" may actually hinder when we translate into another language which has an accusative along with several other cases and in which the word for obey takes the dative, the word for like the genitive and the word on ablative, as they do in Latin.

"Of course, the morphological opposition nominative - accusative must be expressed by something in English. But this "something" is not a morphological opposition, for there is no morphological differentiation between the nominative and the accusative of nouns". See: Trnka B. On the Syntax of the English Verb from Coxton to Dryden Prague, 1930

We must not, of course, look at English through the lattice of categories set up in Latin grammar. The extent to which one can remain unconvinced that English has a grammar like Latin is probably the basis of the faulty viewpoint that English has no grammar at all.

Latin distinguishes subject, direct object, indirect object by case-differences (differences in the inflexion of the word) and arrangement is not very important. English also distinguishes subject, direct object, and indirect object, but it does so largely by arrangement, e.g.:

The pupil handed the teacher his exercise.

He bought his little girl many nice toys.

With all this, it can hardly be denied that there exist in Modern English prepositional structures denoting exactly the same grammatical relation as, say, the possessive case inflection or word order distinguishing the accusative from the dative. These are the so-called "of-phrase" and "to-phrase", in which the prepositions of and to function as grammatical indicators of purely abstract syntactic relations identical with those expressed by cases. The grammatical analysis of such phrases for their frequency, variety and adaptation must, surely, go parallel with the study of the morphological category of case which in present-day English is known to have developed quite a specific character.

The analytical character of some prepositional phrases in Russian is described by V.V. Vіnоgradоv:

«В русском литературном языке с XVII-XVIII вв. протекает медленный, но глубокий процесс синтаксических изменений в системе падежных отношений. Функции многих падежей осложняются и дифференцируются сочетаниями с предлогами. Все ярче обнаруживается внутреннее расслоение в семантической системе предлогов. В то время как одни простые предлоги: для, до, перед, при, под, кроме, сквозь, через, между, а тем более предлоги наречного типа: близ, среди, мимо и т. п. - почти целиком сохраняют свои реальные лексические значения, другие предлоги: а, за, из, в, на, отчасти, над, от, по, про, с, у - в отдельных сферах своего употребления, иные в меньшей степени, иные вплоть до полного превращения в падежные префиксы, ослабляют свои лексические значения, а иногда почти совсем теряют их» В.В. Виноградов. Русский язык. М., 1947, pp. 695-700. 80.

It is important to remember that the grammatical content of the possessive case is rather complex. Besides implying possession in the strict sense of the term, it is widely current in other functions. Compare such patterns, as:

a) my sister's room (genitive of > the room of my sister possession)

b) my sister's arrival (subjective > the arrival of my sister genitive)

c) the criminal's arrest (objective > the arrest of the criminal genitive)

a child's language | (qualitative> the childish language a woman's college | genitive) > a college for women

a month's rent / (genitive of > a monthly rent

three hours' delay / measure) > a delay for three hours

There is no formal difference between subjective and objective genitive, between genitives denoting possession and qualitative genitives, but this kind of ambiguity is usually well clarified by linguistic or situational context. Thus, mother's care may mean «любов матері» -with reference to some individual, and «материнська любов» in its general qualitative sense. The meaning of the phrase may vary with the context.

The same is true of such uses as wife's duty, child's psychology, lawyer's life, man's duty, etc.

The genitive of measure or extent is easily recognised as fairly common in expressions of a certain pattern, e.g.: a moment's silence, a day's work, a minute's reflection, to a hair's breadth, etc.

The genitive inflection is also used with certain words which otherwise do not conform to noun patterning, as in yesterday's rain, to-day's match, to-morrow's engagement. These are not idioms, with their total lexical meaning fixed, but only fixed patterns or usage.

Limits of space do not permit to take notice of all idiomatic patterns established in this part of English grammar. A few further examples will suffice for illustration. These are, for instance: I'm friends with you, where friends is probably part of the indivisible idiom "be friends with" + + noun/pronoun, used predicatively.

Patterns with "of + genitive" usually have a portative sense denoting "one of", e. g.: It is a novel of J. London's(=one of his novels). Cf. It is a novel by J. London. (=a novel written by J. London).

Similarly: Fleur's a cousin of ours, Jon. (Galsworthy)

In expressive language this form may become purely descriptive. Endowed with emotive functions in special linguistic or situational context it may weaken its grammatical meaning and acquire subjective modal force denoting admiration, anger, praise, displeasure, etc., e. g.: Margaret ... was taken by surprise by certain moods of her husband's. (Gaskell)

The -'s inflection offers some peculiar difficulties of grammatical analysis in idiomatic patterns with the so-called group-genitives, e. g.: Mr. what's-his-name's remark, or He said it in plenty of people's hearing.

There are also patterns like "the man I saw yesterday's son" quoted by H. Sweet See: H. Sweet. A New English Grammar. Oxford, 1955. One more example.

The blonde I had been dancing with's name was Bernice something Crabs or Krebs. (Salinger)

We cannot fail to see that the 's belongs here to the whole structure noun + attributive clause.

Different kind of such group-genitives are not infrequent and seem to be on the increase in present-day colloquial English.

Mention should also be made of the parallel use of the 's form and the preposition of found in patterns like the following:

In the light of this it was Lyman's belief and it is mine - that it is a man's duty and the duty of his friend to see to it that his exit from this world, at least, shall be made with all possible dignity. (Taylor) Quoted by B. Ilуіsh. The Structure of Modern English. M., 1965, p. 49.

And here are a few examples of special use of the possessive case in fossilised expressions of the formula character, such as: to one's heart's content, for pity's sake, out of harm's way, at one's fingers' ends, for old acquaintance's sake, for appearance's sake. These expressions were grammatically regular and explicable in their day, but they follow grammatical or semantic principles which have now fallen into disuse.

There are also pleonastic patterns with the post-positional genitive intensifier own used with the 's-form, e. g.: Mary's own dressing-table.

A word should be said about the purely idiomatic absolute use of the genitive case with locative force in patterns like the following:

I bought this at the grocer's.

The baker's is round the corner.

The famous St. Paul's is one of the principal sights of London.

Formations of this kind are on the borderline between grammar and vocabulary; the -'s-inflection seems to have developed into a derivative suffix used to form a noun from another noun.

The relative distribution of the of-phrase and the 's-inflection, as a recurrent feature of the language, must be given due attention in learning style and usage in English.

It is interesting to note, in conclusion, that there is a change going on in present-day English which runs counter to the general trend towards loss of inflections, that is the spreading of's-genitive at the expense of the of-genitive. Until a few years ago, the genitive with 's was used in modern times mainly with nouns which could be replaced (in the singular) by the pronouns he and she, but not with nouns which could be replaced by the pronoun it: so that people normally said the man's face and the woman's face, but the face of the clock and the surface of the water. The's-genitive was used in certain expressions of time and distance (an hour's time), and could be used with many nouns replaceable in the singular by it or they (the Government's decision); as is well known, there was also a number of commonly used phrases where the's-genitive was used even though the noun was one which could be replaced in the singular only by it (New Year's Day, the water's edge). In recent years, however, the's-genitive has come into common use with nouns which are replaceable in the singular only by it.

Here are a few examples taken from reputable sources: resorts' weather > the weather of seaside towns; human nature's diversity > the diversity of human nature; the game's laws > the laws of the game.

Many more examples will be found in books and in newspapers. We cannot fail to see that this tendency for's to replace of is a development from the analytic to the synthetic: the of-phrase is replaced by the's-inflection.

The relative distribution of the of-phrase and the's-genitive as a recurrent feature of the language, must be given due attention as relevant to synonymy in grammar.

It will be important to remember that the distinction between living and lifeless things is not closely observed, and the's-genitive is often used in designations of things to impart descriptive force and at the same time stress the governing noun.

A few typical examples given by G. Curme are:

When I think of all the sorrow and the barrenness that has been wrought in my life by want of a few more pounds per annum, I stand aghast at money's significance.

...for the sake of the mind's peace, one ought not to inquire into such things too closely.

A book's chances depend more on its selling qualities than its worth See: G. Curme.” A Grammar of the English Language”, London-New York, 1931..

Here is a very good example from Galsworthy to illustrate the statement:

He had chosen the furniture himself, and so completely that no subsequent purchase had ever been able to change the room's atmosphere. (Galsworthy)

Associations with life are certainly strong in personification, e.g.: the ocean's roar or Truth's greatest victories, etc. Further illustrations taken from reputable sources are:

resorts' weather > the weather of seaside towns

human nature's diversity > the diversity of human nature

the game's laws > the laws of the game

The spreading of the 's-genitive in present-day English at the expense of the of-phrase is, in fact, a development from the analytic to the synthetic which seems to run counter to the general trends towards the loss of inflections.

The synonymic encounter of the 's-genitive and the of-phrase may be illustrated by examples with "genitive of possession", "subjective and objective genitive", but the use of the 's-genitive in Modern English is comparatively restricted here and the of-phrase is very extensively used in virtually the same sense:

Soames' daughter >- the daughter of Soames

his sister's arrival >- the arrival of his sister

duty's call > the call of the duty

the children's education > the education of the children

It is to be noted that in many cases the special meaning of the genitive depends on the intrinsic meaning of each of the two words connected, and is therefore in each case readily understood by the hearer. The of-phrase denoting possession is generally preferred when the noun is modified by a lengthy attributive adjunct attached to it.

The's-form is rarely used as the objective genitive. The of-phrase in this function is fairly common, e.g.: the sense of beauty, the sense of smell, love of life, the reading of books, the feeling of safety, a lover of poetry, etc.

The, of-phrase in Modern English is widely current in various types of structures, denoting:

the idea of quantity or part ("partitive genitive"), e.g.: a piece of bread, a lump of sugar, a cake of soap, etc.;

material of which a thing is done, e.g.: a dress of silk;

position in space or direction, e.g.: south of Moscow, within 10 miles of London;

relations of time, e.g.: of an evening, of late, all of a sudden;

attributive relations, e.g.: the language of a child =a child's language, the voice of a woman =a woman's voice, etc.;

composition or measure, e.g.: a group of children, a herd of cattle, a flock of birds, a swarm of bees, etc.

There are also patterns with the of-phrase functioning as the appositive genitive, e.g.: the city of Rome, the Republic of France, etc.

Alongside with this appositive construction there is another. The appositive may be placed after the governing noun, e.g.: Lake Michigan, the River Thames, etc.

Many languages have a genitive case, including Albanian, Arabic, Armenian, Basque, Dutch, Estonian, Finnish, Georgian, German, Greek, Icelandic, Irish, Latin, Latvian, Lithuanian, Romanian, Sanskrit, Scottish Gaelic, Turkish and all Slavic languages except Bulgarian and Macedonian. English does not have a proper genitive case, but a possessive ending, -'s, although some pronouns have irregular possessive forms which may more commonly be described as genitives; see English possessive.

Contents

1. Chinese (Cantonese)

2. Chinese (Mandarin)

3. English

4. Finnic genitives and accusatives

5. German

6. Japanese

7. Korean

8. Latin

9. Irish

English

For more details on this topic, see English possessive.

Old English had a genitive case, which has left its mark in modern English in the form of the possessive ending -'s (now sometimes referred to as the "Saxon genitive"), as well as possessive pronoun forms such as his, theirs, etc., and in certain words derived from adverbial genitives such as once and afterwards. (Other Old English case markers have generally disappeared completely.) The modern English possessive forms are not normally considered to represent a grammatical case, although they are sometimes referred to as genitives or as belonging to a possessive case. One of the reasons that the status of -'s as a case ending is often rejected is that it attaches to the end of a noun phrase and not necessarily to the head noun itself, as in the king of Spain's daughter, not the king's of Spain daughter as would be expected if -'s were a case inflection on the noun king (and as was done in older forms of English).

Finnic genitives and accusatives

Finnic languages (Finnish, Estonian) have genitive cases.

In Finnish, prototypically the genitive is marked with -n, e.g. maa - maan "country - of the country". The stem may change, however, with consonant gradation and other reasons. For example, in certain words ending in consonants, -e- is added, e.g. mies - miehen "man - of the man", and in some, but not all words ending in -i, the -i is changed to an -e-, to give -en, e.g. lumi - lumen "snow - of the snow". The genitive is used extensively, with animate and inanimate possessors. In addition to the genitive, there is also a partitive case (marked -ta/-tд or -a/-д) used for expressing that something is a part of a larger mass, e.g. joukko miehiд "a group of men".

In Estonian, the genitive marker -n has elided with respect to Finnish. Thus, the genitive always ends with a vowel, and the singular genitive is sometimes (in a subset of words ending with a vocal in nominative) identical in form to nominative.

In Finnish, in addition to the uses mentioned above, there is a construct where the genitive is used to mark a surname. For example, Juhani Virtanen can be also expressed Virtasen Juhani ("Juhani of the Virtanens").

A complication in Finnic languages is that the accusative case -(e)n is homophonic to the genitive case. This case does not indicate possession, but is a syntactic marker for the object, additionally indicating that the action is telic (completed). In Estonian, it is often said that only a "genitive" exists. However, the cases have completely different functions, and the form of the accusative has developed from *-(e)m. (The same sound change has developed into a synchronic mutation of a final m into n in Finnish, e.g. genitive sydдmen vs. nominative sydдn.) This homophony has exceptions in Finnish, where a separate accusative -(e)t is found in pronouns, e.g. kenet "who (telic object)", vs. kenen "whose".

A difference is also observed in some of the related Sбmi languages, where the pronouns and the plural of nouns in the genitive and accusative are easily distinguishable from each other, e.g., kuд'ckkmi "eagles' (genitive plural)" and kuд'ckkmid "eagles (accusative plural)" in Skolt Sami.

German

The genitive case is used in the German language to show possession.

For example:

das Buch der Schьlerin (the book of the schoolgirl) - Feminine

das Buch des Schьlers (the book of the schoolboy) - Masculine

An s is simply added to the end of the name if the identity of the possessor is specified. For example:

Claudias Buch (Claudia's book)

There is also a genitive case of German pronouns such as dein (your) and mein (my).

The genitive case is also used for objects of some prepositions, such as trotz (despite), wegen (because of), [an]statt (instead of), wдhrend (during), and is required as the case of the direct object for some verbs, e.g. gedenken, sich erfreuen, bedьrfen: usage: wir gedachten der Verstorbenen - We remembered the dead; wir erfreuen uns des schцnen Wetters - We're happy about the nice weather.

All of the articles change in the genitive case.

Masculine Feminine Neuter Plural

Definite article desde rdesder

Indefinite article eineseiner eineseiner

Adjective endings in genitive case:

Masculine Feminine Neuter Plural

With definite article-en-en-en-en

With indefinite article-en-en-en-en

With no article-en-er-en-er

The following prepositions can take the genitive: auЯerhalb, innerhalb, statt, trotz, wдhrend, wegen, and dank.

The genitive case is widely avoided in most colloquial and dialectal varieties of German. It is replaced by the dative case after verbs and prepositions, and by means of the preposition von ("of") in other contexts. However, this usage is not accepted in the written standard language.

Latin

The genitive is one of the cases of nouns and pronouns in Latin. Latin genitives still have certain modern scientific uses:

Scientific names of living things sometimes contain genitives, as in the plant name Buddleja davidii, meaning "David's buddleia". Here Davidii is the genitive of Davidius, a Latinized version of the English name. It is not capitalized because it is the second part of a binomial name.

Names of astronomical constellations are Latin, and the genitives of their names are used in naming objects in those constellations, as in the Bayer designation of stars. For example, the brightest star in the constellation Virgo is called Alpha Virginis, which is to say "Alpha of Virgo", as virginis is the genitive of virgф.

Modus operandi, which can be translated to English as "mode of operation", in which operandi is a singular genitive gerund (i.e. "of operation"), not a plural of operandus as is sometimes mistakenly assumed.

Irish

This section may contain parts that are misleading. Please help clarify this article according to any suggestions provided on the talk page. (October 2013)

The Irish language also uses a genitive case (tuiseal ginideach). For example in the phrase bean an tн (woman of the house), tн is the genitive case of teach, meaning "house". Another example is barr an chnoic, "top of the hill", where cnoc means "hill", but is changed to chnoic, which also incorporates lenition.

On the other hand, there are cases when substitution is not possible. The set expression red tape has a one word equivalent in Russian бюрократизм, but in English it can be substituted only by a free phrase. Thus, in the enumeration of political evils in the example below red tape, although syntactically equivalent to derivative nouns used as homogeneous members, can be substituted only by some free phrase, such as rigid formality of official routine. Cf. the following example:

BURGOYNE: And will you wipe out our enemies in London, too? SWINDON: In London! What enemies?

BURGOYNE (forcible): Jobbery and snobbery, incompetence and Red Tape ... (Shaw).

The unity of syntactic function is present in this case also, but the criterion of equivalence to a single word cannot be applied, because substitution by a single word is impossible. Such equivalence is therefore only relative, it is not universally applicable and cannot be accepted as a general criterion for defining these units. The equivalence of words and set expressions should not be taken too literally but treated as a useful abstraction, only in the sense we have stated.

The main point of difference between a word and a set expression is the divisibility of the latter into separately structured elements which is contrasted to the structural integrity of words. Although equivalent to words in being introduced into speech ready-made, a set expression is different from them, because it can be resolved into words, whereas words are resolved into morphemes.

uzbek english inflexion word



Chapter 2. Comparative analysis of case in English and Uzbek

2.1 Feedbacks of finding difficulties at the teaching of cases

To begin with, I'm going to give some general information about comperative analysis. The item-by-item comparison of two or more comparable alternatives, processes, products, qualifications, sets of data, systems, or the like. In accounting, for example, changes in a financial statement's items over several accounting periods may be presented together to detect the emerging trends in the company's operations and results. The comparative analysis was especially useful as each example served as a great guide or template for understanding the other. And also

The Category of Case

Kelishik kategoriyasi

The system of grammatical forms indicating the syntactic relations of nouns or pronouns is usually treated as the category of case, in other words, case is a grammatical form which takes part in the formation of the paradigm of nouns or pronouns .The category of case of noun shows the relation of the noun to the other words in a sentence. In all the languages compared we find the category of case , but their opposition differJ.B. Buranov and other “The Grammatical structures of English, Uzbek and Russian” Part I Tashkent,-“O'qituvchi”,-1986 on page 84. In English the noun has two cases (girl-girl's), in Uzbek and Russian it has six cases (qiz-qizning-qizga-qizdan-qizda).

The differences and similarities in the nomenclature of the category of case of English and Uzbek nouns are as follows:

Engl. Uzb.

The Nominative (Common) Case + +

The Genetive Case + +

The Dative Case - +

The Accusative Case - +

The Locative Case - +

The Ablative Case - +

As seen from the table, the category of case of Uzbek and Russian nouns is much more developed than that of English nouns. There are a great difference between English and Uzbek nouns in their relation to the category of case.

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