Ways to form Ukrainian food terminology in the context of world terminology

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Odesa National University of Technology

Department of Ukrainian and Foreign Philology

Ways to form Ukrainian food terminology in the context of world terminology

Vivat H.I., Dr Sci., Professor

Yakovlieva M.L., Phd, Ass. Professor



Abstract

The article substantiates the origin and meaning of some food names in the languages of different peoples of the world. The ways of formation and establishment of some food terms in the Ukrainian language on different grounds have been traced:

1) based on the taste of the product;

2) based on the composition of the main ingredients of a particular dish;

3) based on the methods of cooking a culinary product;

4) through borrowing and adaptation in a particular culture, etc.

It is also pointed out that there are different methods of classifying vegetables, namely: biological classification, classification by parts of plants consumed, by the period of cultivation, by colour, by size, by taste, etc. It is noted that the terminology process in the Ukrainian food industry is not complete, but is still in the process of formation and sometimes requires appropriate standardisation. The issue of inconsistency between culinary and botanical science of some terms, which mainly relate to fruits and vegetables, has been studied, since there is no clear distinction between fruits and vegetables, namely: it has been noted that the concept of the word vegetables and their difference from fruits is not clearly defined, and therefore is not scientific, although they are widely used in cooking.

The author notes the controversial interpretation of the origin of the terms `sausage' and `potato pancakes. Attention is also drawn to the process of creating a seasoning called `vinaigrette' and the formation of such a culinary product as vinegret salad. A comprehensive study of the ways of formation and development of certain terms in the food industry, such as `vegetables' [owochi], `fruit' [frukty], “tomato” [pomidor], `aubergine' [baklajan], `mustard' [hirchytsia], `vinegret' [winegret], `bigos' [bigos], `stuffed cabbage leaves' [holubtsi], `sausage' [kowbasa], `potato pancakes' [deruny ].

The research was based on the experience of some previous researchers and academic dictionaries. It is also noteworthy that to prove the rationality of the material under discussion, examples were taken from both scientific literature and fiction, including poetry, by various authors of Ukrainian and other Slavic languages. Thus, the result of the work was a comprehensive substantiation of the ways of nomination, including term formation, of certain segments of the food industry in the Ukrainian language and in some other Slavic languages.

Keywords: nomen [nomen], terminology [terminologia], term [termin], standardisation of terms [standartyzacia terminiv], `vegetables' [owochi], `fruit' [frUkty], `tomato' [pomidor], `aubergine' [baklajan], `mustard' [hirchytsia], vinegret' [winehret], bigos [bigos], `stuffed cabbage leaves' [holubtsi], `sausage' [kowbasa], `potato pancakes' [deruny].



Анотація

Шляхи творення української харчової термінології у контексті світової

Віват Г.І., д. філол. н., професор; Яковлева М.Л., к.п.н., доцент, кафедра української тa іноземної філології, Одеський нaціoнaльний технологічний університет

У статті обґрунтовано походження та значення деяких харчових номенів у мовах різних народів світу. Простежено шляхи формування та утвердження деяких харчових термінів в українській мові на різних підставах:

1) з огляду на смакові якості виробу;

2) на підставі складу основних інгредієнтів, що входять то тієї чи тієї страви;

3) на основі способів приготування кулінарного виробу;

4) через запозичення та адаптацію в тій чи тій культурі та ін.

Вказано також на наявність різних методів класифікування овочів, а саме: біологічна класифікація, класифікація за частинами рослин, що споживають, за періодом вирощування, за кольором, за розміром, за смаком тощо. Звернено увагу на те, що процес термінологізації в українській харчовій галузі не є завершеним, а досі знаходиться у процесі становлення та подекуди потребує відповідної стандартизації. Простудійовано питання про неузгодженість у кулінарії із наукою ботанікою деяких термінів, які здебільшого стосуються фруктів та овочів, оскільки немає чіткого розмежування між фруктами та овочами, а саме: звернено увагу на те, що поняття слова овочі та їхня відмінність від фруктів чітко не визначена, а відтак не є науковими, хоч їх широко використовують у кулінарії.

Зроблено зауваги до спірного трактування походження термінів «ковбаса» та «деруни». Звернено також увагу на процес творення приправи за назвою «вінегрет» та становлення такого кулінарного виробу як вінегрет-салат. Безпосередньо здійснено комплексне дослідження шляхів формування та становлення окремих термінів у харчовій галузі, таких як «овочі» [owochi], «фрукти» [frukty], «помідор» [pomidor], «баклажан» [baklajn], «гірчиця» [hirchtsia], «вінегрет» [winegrct], «біґос» [bigоs] «голубці» [holubtsi], «ковбаса» [kowbas], «деруни» [derun ].

У процесі студій було використано досвід деяких попередніх дослідників та академічні словники. Прикметним є й те, що для доведення раціональності обговорюваного матеріалу приклади було взято як із наукової літератури, так і з художніх творів, зокрема й поетичних, різних авторів української та інших слов'янських мов. Таким чином, результатом роботи стало всебічне обґрунтування шляхів номінації, зокрема й термінотворення, окремих сегментів харчової галузі виробництва в українській мові та в деяких інших слов'янських мовах.

Ключові слова: номен [nomen], термінологія [terminologia], термін [tcrmin], стандартизація термінів [standartyzcia tcrminiv], «овочі» [owochi], «фрукти» [firikty], «помідор» [pomiddr], «баклажан» [baklajn], «гірчиця» [hirchtsia], «вінегрет» [winehret], біґос [bigоs], «голубці» [holubtsi], «ковбаса» [kowbas], «деруни» [derun].



Problem statement and its connection with important scientific tasks

The science of food preparation technology is multidisciplinary and diverse. In particular, it is the science of various methods and means of culinary processing of food, preparation of various dishes, food seasonings, additions to main dishes and other culinary products. A separate segment of this science is the study of food varieties in terms of composition, i.e. a set of products; methods of their preparation (pickling, fermenting, drying, curing); cooking methods (baking, boiling, frying, stewing); taste; calorie content; physical and chemical composition, features of certain culinary processes, etc. It is well known that the modern vast experience of harvesting and processing food products and preparing various dishes from them has been accumulated by every nation for many centuries, having passed a long and difficult path of formation. It depended on various factors:

1) the natural conditions in which the people live, and therefore the flora and fauna inherent in the climatic characteristics of a particular region;

2) folk traditions, which are mostly developed and affirmed on the basis of beliefs;

3) the economic capabilities of the country as a whole or the class affiliation of people in that country;

4) the purpose of the food product, i.e. whether it is the main dish or just an addition to some other dish;

5) the method and order of consumption of the culinary product - appetiser, condiment, first course, second course, dessert, etc.

It is noteworthy that the way in which any food product was created and developed largely determined its name, and the naming of dishes and food products is included in the section of food terminology. Food terminology, like the terminology of any branch of science and production, has its own history of origin, development and formation. For example, the name of a food product or culinary product can sometimes be used to identify its country of origin, cooking method, ingredients, taste, etc. It is the study of the ways of formation, creation and development of some food terms in Ukrainian and other languages of the world, as well as the justification of the expediency of these names that is the purpose of this paper.

This purpose implies the realisation of the following tasks:

1) to study the phenomenon of functioning of the names of food terms that were formed on the basis of their cooking technology, taste, combination of ingredients or other factors;

2) to study the ways of origin of the names of some culinary products that were borrowed from different cuisines of the world and adapted in Ukrainian one;

3) to clarify the semantic load of the terminology of culinary products that are similar in preparation but differ in origin, highlighting the details.

In order to obtain reliable data, the paper uses the methods of description, induction and deduction, as well as component and contextual interpretation methods.

Analysis of recent research and publications. Well-known researchers of the life of the Ukrainian people L. Artiukh, F. Vovk, Oleksa Voropai, E. Hotsa, P Hrytsenko, B. Hrinchenko, A. Kaniievskyi, S. Kylymnyk, M. Maksymovych, P. Popov, S. Tvorun, P Chubynskyi, H. Shylo, V Shukhevych, and others worked on the problems of creating a history of the development and formation of Ukrainian food culture. Their field research is of great importance in studying the history of the development of Ukrainian food culture and the ways of food nomen formation [1, p. 7]. However, there are few scientific studies on the etymology of the names of products, dishes, food seasonings and their adaptation in Slavic languages, although the works of domestic etymologists and linguists T. Bakina, R. Boldyreva, V. Zhaivoronko, Ye. Kozyreva, S. Yatsenko, etc. are noteworthy. It is also possible to pay attention to the works of Polish researchers auch as Jusik Michalina, Mikolajezewski Katarzyna, Muller Aneta, Szmyt Karolina, Zagloba Katarzyna. The works of Marek Stachowski are also interesting etymological studies. Some studies in this area are also available in our previous works [1], [2], [3], [4], [5]. However, we dare to say that many more interesting details of the emergence, development and formation of food names, which have been transferred from the common vocabulary to the category of terminology, have not been subjected to close analysis by linguists, etymologists, terminologists, and therefore we have a wide field of activity in this particular segment of philological sciences.



Summary of the main research material

An important component of the culture of every nation is its food segment. Ukrainian cuisine also has a long history, has gone through a difficult path of formation and development, and is famous for the variety of exquisite dishes, culinary products and recipes for their preparation, and therefore their names, which are directly related to the ways in which a particular dish entered the specific food heritage of our people.

As it is well known, flour and cereal products were a priority in Ukrainian food culture, as these plants occupied a significant place in Ukrainian agriculture. Vegetables and root crops were also widely consumed by Ukrainians [4, p. 5]. However, not all of these plants immediately occupied a significant place in Ukrainian cuisine, and thus their names went through a certain path of transformation and change in the process of formation. It is noteworthy that the terminology process in the Ukrainian food industry is not complete, but is still in the process of formation and sometimes requires appropriate standardisation. Part of the reason for this phenomenon is that many plants that produce edible fruits came to Europe, including Ukraine, by different routes and at different times, and thus acquired local names that do not correspond to the literary names and classical terms. In particular, the definition of fruits and vegetables in cooking is not consistent with the science of botany, as there is no clear distinction between fruits and vegetables, i.e. the concept of the word vegetables and their difference from fruits is not clearly defined, and therefore not scientific, although they are widely used in cooking.

Vegetables or vegetable garden plants (collectively vegetable crops) are a class of plants (crops) and their edible parts (fruits, roots, seeds, etc.). Vegetables are often contrasted with sweet fruits, berries and various seeds and spices. Vegetables can be almost any part of a plant: leaves, fruits, flowers, roots, stems, tubers. Mushrooms are also usually classified as vegetables, although they are not plants at all. Vegetables can be classified according to various criteria, such as biological classification, classification by parts of plants consumed, by the period of cultivation, by colour, by size, by taste, etc.

The word 'vegetable' is the Old East Slavic *ovosht (овошть), referring to an Indo-European root, where it may have meant to grow. It is assumed that this word entered the Slavic languages at the turn of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. It came into active use in the Ukrainian language in the fifteenth or sixteenth century. Initially, this word was used to describe both the plant fruits and fruits and the process of their growth and ripening. In the Ukrainian language, the word vegetables usually referred to fruit fruit garden plants - sadovyna), and vegetables were called vegetable garden plants (gorodyna) [6].

A similar process took place in other Slavic languages. For example, in Polish, vegetables are still called those plants that Ukrainians call fruits (owoce), and vegetables are called warzywa [vajyva] or jarzyny [yajyny]. In Bulgarian, it is овошка (fruit tree), in Czech, ovoce (fruit).

This is exactly the interpretation of the term `owoc' in Henryk Sienkiewicz's „Pan Wolodyjowski” (“Mr. Volodiyovskyi”): „Niech wielmoznosc pozwoli, tu jest suchy winograd w tym czuchubie, a z tego brzegu takowy owoc, ktorego i w Turcyi niema, jeno z Azyi zdaleka przychodzi, a tam napalmach rosnie...” [7, p. 6].

(Let the lordship allow, there are dry grapes in that chukhuba, and from the other side there is a fruit that is not found in Turkey, because it comes from distant Asia, and grows on palm trees there... [our translation - H.V.]).

The ways in which the fruits of such widely consumed vegetables as tomato and aubergine entered the food culture of Ukrainians and the formation of their names are also interesting and complex.

A tomato (Polish: pomidor, Russian: помидор) is a vegetable of the Solanaceae family. From a botanical point of view, tomatoes (tomato fruits) are considered berries, but in everyday life and in terms of their use, these fruits have long been considered vegetables.

The word tomato is borrowed from Italy - pomi d'oro (`golden apples'). Perhaps because they were originally yellow in colour. Christopher Columbus brought these fruits from South America to Italy and Portugal, where they were considered poisonous for a long time [8, p. 323].

According to another version, in 1519, the conquistador Fernando Cortes first saw the bright red fruit in the gardens of Montezuma. Impressed, he brought this fruit to Europe, where it was grown as an ornamental plant [8].

In France, the tomato was called the `apple of love' (pomme d'amour) because it was believed to have aphrodisiac properties.

The Latin name of the tomato, Lycopersicum esculent, was introduced by the French botanist Joseph Pitton de Tournayfort in the seventeenth century and meant `wolf peach'. The round and juicy fruit of the tomato was mistakenly equated with a belladonna berry and considered poisonous - hence the name.

The word tomato comes from the Spanish tomate, a derivative of the ancient Aztec word tomatl [9].

In Ukrainian, the word `помідор' (tomato) is used to describe this fruit. The word `томат' is also used in Ukrainian, but this term is mostly used when it refers to tomato juice, sauce or paste.

Few people know that tomato used to be called `баклажан' (aubergine). The reason is that the fruits of tomatoes and aubergines came to Ukraine almost simultaneously and our ancestors had a hard time remembering the names of these strange fruits. In some regions of Ukraine, tomatoes are still called aubergines. This fact was recorded in our previous studies, for example:

Baklazhany (Баклажани), pl. (Hutsulshchyna) - tomatoes.

Padladzhana f. (Bukovyna) - tomato.

Paklazhana f. (Bukovyna) - tomato [4, p. 39].

Sometimes these fruits were simply called red or red and blue.

By the way, in the south of Ukraine, eggplants are still called blue, and in the Kuban and near the Don, tomatoes are still called red. In Transcarpathia, tomatoes are sometimes called `paradychka' [10].

Aubergine (Polish: baklazan) is a herbaceous plant of the Solanaceae family. From a botanical point of view, like the tomato, it is considered a berry, but in cooking it is considered a vegetable. The aubergine originates from the tropical forests of India. Thanks to sailors, it came to Europe and became popular among Italians and Spaniards. It came to Ukraine only in the nineteenth century.

The word `баклажан' (aubergine) is borrowed from the Turkish patlydzan, which in turn comes from the Persian language - biidinjiin, but the original word from which all the others came was melongena, which comes from the Sanskrit vatin ganah [11].

Interestingly, this `Turkish' product, which could have made Ukrainian cuisine even more diverse, did not take root in Ukraine for a long time, being considered `Basurman' and almost inedible. By the way, aubergines caused a lot of trouble even for Ivan Franko's wife in the late nineteenth century. She came from the Kharkiv region, where aubergines were already widely consumed at that time. When she cooked them in Lviv, it caused surprise and condemnation among `respectable Galician housewives' [12].

There are dishes or condiments whose names are derived from the ingredients used to make the food product, but the formation of their names sometimes goes through a difficult path and sometimes does not correspond to the terminology of the culinary product in other languages. These include mustard and vinaigrette.

Mustard is a herbaceous oil plant from the Cruciferous family that has been known to humans since ancient times. It was widespread everywhere, from Europe to China. The condiment called mustard is made from the seeds of different varieties of the mustard plant, namely white mustard, salad mustard and black mustard. To prepare the condiment, whole, ground or crushed mustard seeds are mixed into a paste with water, vinegar, lemon or apple juice, wine or other liquid with salt and other spices.

The word (noun) mustard (hirchytsia) comes from the verb to bitter (hirchyty), which is the name of this condiment in many languages, but in ancient Rome it was prepared by adding grape juice (`must'), hence the name mustard (Italian: Mostarda, Polish: musztarda). In some regions of Ukraine (mostly in the West), this seasoning is also known as mustarda [11].

A similar method, i.e. mixing ingredients, was used to create a vegetable salad dressing called vinaigrette. The word `vinihret came to us from France in the eighteenth century, where vinaigrette meant “vinegar and oil sauce”, and this word was created from elements of the words vin (“wine”) and aigre (“sour”) - vinaigre (“wine vinegar”) and a suffix [11]. This is the name of the seasoning for vegetable salads all over the world. This is how Polish food experts explain the origin and purpose of this food product: „Winegret lub vinaigrette (fr. vinaigre - ocet) - zimny sos pochodzqcy z kuchni francuskiej przyrzqdzany z oliwy (3 czsci) i octu (1 czsc), ktore sq dokladnie mieszane i ubijane do lekkiego zg?stnienia. Przyprawia si? go pieprzem i solq, ktore lepiej jest dodac na poczqtku do czystego octu, bo dodatek oliwy utrudnia rozpuszczanie si? soli. Ocet w sose mozna zastqpic sokiem z cytryny. Duze znaczenie ma wykorzystanie oliwy i octu winnego wysokiej jakosci.

Winegret podaje si? do zielonych salat, serwowanych na zimno jarzyn, owocow morza i czasem migs, jak tez do mizerii” [13].

(Vinegret or vinaigrette (French vinaigre - vinegar) is a cold sauce originating from French cuisine, made from oil (3 parts) and vinegar (1 part), which are well mixed and whisked until slightly thickened. It is seasoned with pepper and salt, which are best added to the pure vinegar at the beginning, as the addition of oil makes it difficult for the salt to melt. Vinegar in the sauce can be replaced with lemon juice. It is important to use high quality oil and wine vinegar.

The vinaigrette is served with green salads, served cold vegetables, seafood, sometimes meat, and fresh cucumber salads [our translation - H.V.].

So, in Polish cuisine, as well as all over the world, vinaigrette is still not considered a separate dish (salad), but only as a sauce, that is, an addition to dishes. Although it is worth noting that in Polish cuisine, the name vinaigrette is known as a salad, which was borrowed from Lviv restaurants. In Polish przepisach (recipe books), this dish is known as winegret (salatka).

„Winegret - salatka warzywna znana w kuchni rosyjskiej i ukrainskiej, jej podstawa sq ugotowane buraki. Salatka winegret jest przyrzqdzana z ugotowanych burakow, ziemniakow i marchwi, dodaje si? posiekanq drobno cebul?, kiszonq kapust? i kiszone lub konserwowe ogorki.

W roznych wariantach dodawany bywa zielony groszek lub gotowana fasola. Calosc jest zakwaszana octem, od ktorego pochodzi nazwa salatki. Zdarza si?, ze zamiast octu skladniki skrapane sq olejem slonecznikowym lub wodq pozostalq z kwaszenia kapusty lub ogorkow” [13].

(Vinegret is vegetable salad known in Russian and Ukrainian cuisine, based on boiled beetroot. Vinegret salad is made from boiled beetroot, potatoes and carrots, with finely chopped onions, sauerkraut and pickled or preserved cucumbers. nomination term formation food nomen industry ukrainian

In various variations, green peas or boiled beans can be added. The mixture is seasoned with vinegar, from which the name of the salad comes. Sometimes, instead of vinegar, the ingredients are dressed with sunflower oil or water left over from sauerkraut or cucumbers [our translation - H.V.]).

In our opinion, vinigret as a vegetable salad, in which the main ingredients are boiled beetroot and potatoes (other vegetables are also added), and vinegar is mostly replaced by pickled cucumbers or sauerkraut brine, originated in Ukraine because in Ukrainian cuisine, it is customary to dress salads immediately, mixing the dressing with the main dish, unlike in French cuisine, where sauces are traditionally served separately from the main dish at the time of eating. And since vinaigrette (sauce) is used to dress different salads, the recipe for vinigret (salad) is also variable: sometimes pieces of meat or fish are added to vegetables.

The name of the dish бігос is interesting from the point of view of its taste and nutritional components, and there are also disagreements about the origin of its name. Bigos (Belarusian: бігас, Lithuanian: bigos, German: Beiguss, Polish: bigos) is a traditional dish of Polish, Lithuanian, Belarusian and some regions of Ukrainian cuisine. The origin of the word bigos is not known for certain. Initially, the word was used to describe chopping (to chop into bigos), and later it was used to describe a dish made from chopped meat. In the seventeenth century, the word bigos also meant a dish made from the remains of previous dishes.

Since the seventeenth century, the word bigos has also been used in a broader sense as rublenina, and in a figurative sense it was said: `to chop' (bugosuvaty) in a fight, that is, to cut into small pieces (for example, with a sabre). In many of Henryk Sienkiewicz's works, this expression is mentioned in various situations. For example, in his novel „Pan Wolodyjowski” (“Mr. Volodiyovskyi”): „Nie wiem, jesliby to komu bylo bezpieczno, gdyby tu jeden wlos mial mi spasc z glowy. Elekcya niedaleko, a gdy si? sto tysi?cy braterskich szabel zbierze, latwo si? jakowes bigosowanie moze uczynic... ” [14 p. 42].

(I don't know if anyone would be safe if even one hair were to fall from my head here. The choice is not far away, and if a hundred thousand brotherly sabers gather, they can easily do some chopping... [our translation - H.V.]).

Or in the work „Ogniem i mieczem” (“By Fire and Sword”): „ - Dawajcie go nam sam! - krzyczal Migurski - wnet go tu b?dziem bigosowali! ” [15, p. 323].

(Give him to us! - shouted Migursky - we'll chop him here in no time! [our translation - H.V.]).

Or in the work „Potop” (“Flood”): „Ona tez nas tam podejmowac b?dzie goscinnie, a wy si? przystojnie zachowajcie, bo na bigos posiekam, ktorenby jej w czemkolwiek uchybil... < ... >

- Dawajcie ich sam! ... Na szable ich! ... Bigosowac!...” [16, s. 41].

(She will also receive us there with hospitality, and you will behave yourselves handsomely, for I will chop up who would fail her in anything... < ... >

- Let's do tit with them! ... On sabers them! To chop them! ... [our translation - H.V.]).

According to the authors of a German cookery book, the word bigos should be of Latin origin and mean “two tastes”. The first part “bi” means “double”, and the second part “gos” comes from “taste” (bi + gustus). These two tastes would be sauerkraut, which is the basis of bigos, and fresh white cabbage [11].

There are also other versions of the origin of this word: a) from the Italian word bigutta (cauldron, pot); b) from the German word Weiguss (topping up, adding water), as this dish requires a little water to be added. In our opinion, the origin of the name bigos from the Latvian “two flavours” is the most reliable and reasonable version.

An interesting fact is the description of the preparation and enjoyment of bigos by guests in the poem “Pan Tadeusz czyli ostatni zajazd na Litwie” (“Pan Tadeusz or the main stopover in Lithuania”) by Adam Mickiewicz, where the author, in fact, sings the praises of this dish, describing its fragrant smell, taste, and method of preparation, putting this dish on a par with a wonderful folk song [5, p. 81].

An integral part of the description of bigos in that poem is the description of the process of eating it and the aftertaste: W kociolkach bigos grzano. W slowach wydac trudno / Bigosu smak przedziwny, kolor i won cudnq; / Slow tylko brz?k uslyszy i rymow porzqdek, / Ale trzesci ich miejski nie pojmie zolqdek, / Aby cenic litewskie piesni i potrawy, / Trzeba miec zdrowie, na wsi zyc, wracac z oblawy. / Przeciez i bez tych przypraw potrawq nielada / Jest bigos, bo si? z jarzyn dobrych sztucznie sklada. / Bierze si? don siekana, kwaszona kapusta, / Ktorq, wedle przyslowia, sama idzie w usta; / Zamkni?ta w kotle, lonem wilgotnym okrywa / Wyszukanego czqstki najlepsze mi?siwa; / I prazy si? az ogien wszystkie z niej wycisnie / Soki zywne, az z brzegow naczynia war przysnie / I powietrze dokola zionie aromatem. / Bigos juz gotow. Strzelcy z tzrykrotnym wiwatem / Zbrojni lyzkami, bigq i bodq naczynie. / Miedz grzmi, dym bucha, bigosjakkamforaginie [17, s. 116-117].

(Bigos is warm in the boilers. It's hard to describe in words / Bigos's taste is wonderful, its colour and smell are delightful; / The words only sound and the rhymes are in order / But the city stomach cannot understand their composition / To appreciate Lithuanian songs and dishes, / You need to be healthy, live in the country, return from a raid. / After all, even without those seasonings, bigos is a pleasant dish / Because it is artfully made from good vegetables. / You take chopped, sauerkraut, / Which, according to the proverb, goes into your mouth; / Closed in a cauldron, a wet bosom covers / A delicious piece of the best meat; / And fry it until the fire squeezes everything out of it. / Food juices pour out of the dishe's sides / And the air around it radiates aroma. / Bigos is ready. The shooters, shouting "Vivat!" three times / Armed with spoons, run and test the dishes. / Copper rattles, smoke explodes, bigos, like camphor, disappears from the dish [our translation - H.V.]).

In Ukraine, a similar dish to bigos is prepared, but it is simply called fried or stewed cabbage. However, in some regions of Ukraine it is known as bigos or bigus (in Odesa, Volyn and Galicia). Bigos, or stewed cabbage, is a ritual dish for Christmas in Belarus, Lithuania, Poland, and Ukraine.

It is interesting to note how cabbage rolls entered the culture of different nations, and hence the variety of names for this dish in the cuisines of different nations. Stuffed cabbage leaves (golqbki) are a dish that has been and still is a staple of any holiday in Ukraine and other Slavic lands. Stuffed cabbage leaves are a well-known dish, meaning that, in addition to Ukrainian cuisine, they are also typical of Eastern European and Middle Eastern cuisine. Thanks to the various fillings, this dish can be cooked both during fasting and on days when you can eat meatless food. And thanks to the fact that humanity has learnt to preserve cabbage for a long time, both fresh and sauerkraut, cabbage leaves can be cooked at any time of the year.

Stuffed cabbage leaves are usually filled with minced meat, rice or buckwheat and onions. However, even in different regions of Ukraine, corn, millet or pearl barley, potatoes, beans, carrots, mushrooms, onions and cracklings are also used to fill cabbage rolls. The minced meat is wrapped in fresh or fermented cabbage leaves (fermented cabbage leaves in Ukraine are called kryzhalky or kryzhavky [4, p. 54]). In the spring, young beetroot leaves were used instead of cabbage leaves, in Belarus - young horseradish leaves, and in the southwest - young grape leaves.

There are several versions of the origin of the name of this dish. According to one version, the name cabbage leaves (holubtsi) is associated with the word `holub' (pegion), allegedly because of its resemblance to that bird. According to another, more probable, version, cabbage leaves got their name from a dish made from pigeons, which were wrapped in cabbage leaves when cooked on a spit or grill. Later, the pigeon carcasses were replaced with minced meat, and then the cooks' imagination started to work: they started adding various cereals and vegetables to the meat.

There is also a version of borrowing this word for the name of the dish from Turkic languages: kalamb - cabbage [11]. In general, the origin and formation of the name of the dish cabbage leaves has not yet been established. The Polish linguist Marek Stachowski tried to trace the origin and development of the name holubtsi (golqbki) in Slavic languages, in his article “Uwagi do etymologii slowianskiej nazwy potrawy golqbki” (“Notes on the etymology of the Slavic name for cabbage leaves”), where, having studied a number of linguistic, literary and linguistic sources, he concluded: „Nie ma wi?c nadal odpowiedzi calkowicie jednoznacznej na pytanie o pochodzenie wyrazu golqbki. Ale dwie kwestie wydajq si? pewne:

1) poszukiwanie etymonu w j?zykach orientalnych jest zdecydowanie bardziej perspektywiczne niz kurczowe trymanie si? twerdzen, ze motywacjq semantycznq terminu golqbki bylo podobienstwo ksztaltu albo porownywalna wielkosc (a innych wyjasnien dziwnej semantyki nie ma);

2) konieczna jest wspolpraca z historykami kulinariow i fakt ten doskonale obrazuje kombinatoryczny charakter etymologii jako nauki” [18].

(So, there is still no complete and unambiguous answer to the question of the origin of the expression `cabbage leaves' (holubtsi). However, two things seem certain: the search for etymology in Eastern languages is certainly more promising than holding on to the assertion that the semantic motivation of the term cabbage leaves (holubtsi) is based on similarity of shape or comparison in size (and there are no other explanations for the strange semantics); 2) cooperation with culinary historians is undoubtedly necessary, and this fact perfectly demonstrates the combinatorial nature of etymology as a science [our translation - H.V.]).

Another interesting fact is that the name holubtsi (golqbki) is not the only one for this dish. The second most widespread name in Slavic languages is sarma (Bulgarian: sarmi; Serbo-Croatian: sarma; Czech: sarma), which also requires appropriate research and standardisation. In Greek and Azerbaijani cuisine, cabbage rolls are called cabbage dolma. And in other languages, this dish has acquired the following names: English cabbage roll - `cabbage rolls'; French cigare au chou - `cabbage cigars'; Spanish repollo relleno - `stuffed cabbage'; German Krautwurst - `cabbage sausages' [11]. The etymology of all these terms requires further study.

The origin of the term sausage is also not fully understood. We consider the statements about the origin of the name of this food product to be controversial and in need of clarification.

Sausage (Bulgarian: колбВ°ІПс, Bulgarian: клъбасВ°, Polish: kielbasa, Serbo-Croatian: кобВ°ІПсица, Slovak: klbB°insa, Slovenian: klobB°insa, Czech: klobB°insa) has long been known as a dish all over the world. It is mentioned in the sources of Ancient Greece, Rome, Babylon, and Ancient China. This dish has also long been known in Ukraine. There is information that “Rusyns knew how to salt meat already under Sviatoslav”, and ham was cooked in the era of Volodymyr. There are references to the consumption of sausage in Poland in sources recorded during the reign of Wladyslaw II Jagiell. In particular, we can read about this dish in Deotyma's work Sobieski pod Wiedniem (“Sobieski under Vienna”): „Masz t? kielbaskiq. Tys jesc jq powinien / „Z uszanowaniem, bo lyk to xiqz?cy, / „Czysta zwierzyna... z dachowych zaj?cy... / <...> / „A co za krola wy macie! Aniola! / „Na! Za te wiesci, bierz drugq kielbaskiq [19, p. 18].

(Here is a sausage for you. You must eat it / With reverence, for it is a princely sip, / Pure game from the roof hares... / <...> / And what a king you have! An angel! Take another sausage for that news! [our translation - H.V.]).

In Moscow, sausages were not made or consumed because of the ban on meat chopping. In Russia, sausages began to be made only during the reign of Peter the Great [11].

As you know, sausages, like other dishes that are common in different countries of the world, are of different quality, as they are made from different types of meat according to various recipes and methods: baked, boiled, smoked (dried) sausages. However, despite the fact that sausage is a well-known and favourite dish of people in many countries, it is difficult to determine where the name originated. Some etymologists suggest that the name comes from the Turkic kul bacti, meaning `fried meat', which we strongly disagree with. According to another version, which we believe to be well-founded, the word kovbasa has ancient Ukrainian roots. It is assumed to be related to the words kolob, kolobok, as well as to the Ukrainian kovbytsia, kovbychyshche `chump', kovban - the same, kovbatka `piece of meat'. This version may be supported by the names of related dishes that have been preserved since ancient times and have similar roots in modern dialects of some regions of the Ukrainian lands, namely:

«Kovbyk, m. (Hutsulshchyna, Volyn) = Saltyson, m. (archaism) - a pig's stomach stuffed with pieces of meat, lard, lungs, cheek, etc. with spices and baked.

Kolbyk, m. (Polissia) = Baguk, boguk, m. - a) a pig's stomach stuffed with boiled entrails and compressed under a load; b) a pig's stomach stuffed with meat and dried [20, p. 146].

The word kovbyk is derived from the Old Ukrainian stomach. Later, this was the name given to a dish made of boiled pieces of meat and lard, which was stuffed with a cleaned stomach and which eventually became the prototype, i.e. the predecessor of sausages [5, p. 45].

We consider the version of the origin of the name potato pancakes (deruny) to be equally controversial. Deruny, tertiukhy, kremzlyky, tarchanyky, барабуленики, betsi - potato pancakes. They are very popular in Ukrainian, Belarusian, Bulgarian, Polish, Czech, Slovak, Austrian and German cuisines. The main ingredient of the dish is grated potatoes. The word deruny (Belarusian: draniki) comes from the way this dish is prepared (grated [tertoi], peeled [dertoi] potato). In Ukrainian food culture, potato pancakes are a traditional part of the festive table on the Annunciation. It is believed that potato pancakes came to Ukrainian cuisine from Belarusian cuisine, where, in turn, this dish came from German cuisine in the late nineteenth century. According to another version, the spread of potato pancakes in Ukrainian cuisine began much earlier (especially in Polissia) in the eighteenth century: ...in the gardens, in the field, / in the vegetable gardens, / all sorts of things were ripening: / watermelons, tobacco, wheat, / melons, buckwheat, even / sweet potatoes (an overseas fruit), / which would later make / Ukraine famous for deruny (potatopancakes)... [21, p. 401].

We believe that the history of this dish, and therefore the etymology of its name, still needs careful study, as do many other terms of Ukrainian cuisine, which is undoubtedly developing in close context and in interaction with the world food culture.



Conclusions and prospects for further research

Based on all of the above, we can state that the composition and content of food terminology in any language is very large in scope, which provides enormous opportunities for studying the origin, formation and development of nominalisations in the past, as well as their use in modern practice, that is, along with the development of food culture, the nominative vocabulary is also developing, because everything, action, feature, process, phenomenon, etc. has its own name, sometimes more than one, and therefore the names that acquire the status of terms require careful study, clarification and standardisation. Standardised terminology is mandatory for use in official, scientific, business, and industrial texts. The foundations for standardisation of terms were laid in Germany in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, when there was a need to streamline the accumulated terminology, identify the boundaries of industry-specific terminologies, and clarify the meaning of each term [21]. Following the German scientists, various terminologies have been developed in every language, including Ukrainian. However, we believe that there are still many shortcomings in the food segment of Ukrainian terminology, in particular in the area of its standardisation, and therefore the study of the origins and formation of food nomenclature, both in Ukrainian and other cultures, is promising and awaits its researchers.

We believe that the knowledge of food terminology and the history of its emergence and formation, both in Ukrainian and other Slavic languages, will be useful not only for scientists, but also in teaching relevant topics in the educational process of food and technology universities. By studying the material presented in this work and other works on the topic, students of food and technology universities will have the opportunity to significantly enrich their lexical acquisition, improve the culture of professional speech, and add to their knowledge facts about the history of the formation and development of food terminology in Ukrainian and other Slavic and non-Slavic languages. This will provide them with more opportunities to develop and improve their professional field, since, having information about the history of the product name and its inclusion in a particular food culture, a specialist will be able to better conduct content marketing of the product, i.e. present its useful data in a high-quality manner and in the most competent and varied way, providing a maximum of interesting and instructive information to a wide range of consumers. In a fiercely competitive environment, such marketing moves can bring success in the sale of goods and thus contribute to the development of the food industry within the country and even at the international level.



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