Communicative tolerance as a psychological phenomenon

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Rivne State University of the Humanities

Communicative tolerance as a psychological phenomenon

Mykhalchuk N., Dr. in Psych., Professor

Onufriieva L., Dr. in Psych., Professor

Rivne, Kamianets-Podilskyi, Ukraine

Abstract

Анотація

Комунікативна толерантність як психологічний феномен

Михальчук Н., д. психол. н., професор, Рівненський державний гуманітарний університет, м. Рівне (Україна)

Онуфрієва Л., д. психол. н., професор, завідувач кафедри загальної та практичної психології, Кам'янець-Подільський національний університет імені Івана Огієнка, м. Кам'янець-Подільський (Україна)

Мета статті виділити елементи комунікативної толерантності, підкреслити актуальність означеної проблеми, презентувати комунікативну толерантність як психологічний феномен, який особливою мірою цікавить психолінгвістику та соціолінгвістику.

Методи дослідження. Для розв'язання поставлених завдань використовувалися такі теоретичні методи дослідження: категоріальний, структурно-функціональний, аналіз, систематизація, моделювання, узагальнення. Експериментальним методом є метод організації емпіричного дослідження.

Результати дослідження. Доведено, що комунікативне толерантне мовлення за своєю формою є засобом спілкування. Воно безпосередньо пов'язане з психічними особливостями та станами особистості (як вияв різноманітних почуттів: настрою, емоцій, ейфорії, тривоги, фрустрації тощо; як прояв уваги людини: зосередженість, неуважність; як прояв волі, рішучості, розгубленості, зібраності; як прояв мислення: сумніви, упевненість; як прояв уяви: мрії, творчі думки).

Висновки. У змісті дослідження було підтверджено, що мовленнєва поведінка особистості зумовлена соціальними чинниками: культурою, національними особливостями, етикою, освітою, міжособистісним спілкуванням, які в процесі інтеріоризації стають внутрішніми компонентами психічних структур. При цьому зовнішні прояви психофізіологічних процесів комунікативної толерантності в мовленнєвій поведінці людини експлікуються фонетичною стороною мовлення (у вигляді вібрації голосу людини, тембрової модуляції, підвищення темпу, швидкості мовленнєвих реакцій).

Ключові слова: комунікативна толерантність, настрої, емоції, ейфорія, тривога, фрустрація, зосередженість, неуважність, прояв волі, рішучість, розгубленість, зібраність, сумніви, впевненість, мрії, творчі думки.

Introduction

With the purpose to describe our topic in a great degree, it should be noted that in conditions of increasing a high level of crisis in our Ukrainian society as a whole and according to its some social groups, it is especially important to address the communicative tolerance of speech, in which the society and the individual express their emotions according to the world which surrounds us. This is especially true for children and young people. In the process of socialization, a person acquires the necessary speech skills, constantly, while expressing their emotions.

There are two ways to express the person's own emotions in a tolerant way: verbal and nonverbal ones (Drigas, & Karyotaki, 2017). We concern only the verbal means, in which the whole speech complex, which includes communicative tolerance, is based on the human psyche matters: we mean psychophysiological, neurophysiological, neurolinguistic, psycholinguistic, genetic, purely linguistic, biological, sociocultural, ethnic, physical, and finally linguistic aspects (El-Zawawy, 2021). For a young, immature person, these components of his/her own speech complex are not sufficiently developed (Fale, Costa, & Luegi, 2016). Also, it is important so called prolonged socio-cultural state of communicative tolerance of a young person. When it is formed, it is easy to express emotions in a verbal form. This moment is more difficult for the person's full comprehension and forecasting of further behavioral actions, which not always are corresponded to communicative tolerant characteristics (Ehri, Nunes, Willows, Schuster, Yaghoub-Zadeh, & Shanahan, 2001).

It is very important for our society that young people are being adequately educated and brought up. And for reaching the abilities to be communicative tolerant we need to study our own speech and emotional space, so as a speech and emotions of children and youth in order to adjust it and model the best characteristics of communicative tolerance in terms of the educational ideal of contemporary person. So, the aim of our research is to show elements of communicative tolerance, to emphasize the actuality of this problem, presenting communicative tolerance as a psychological phenomenon, which is especially interested in Psycholinguistics and Sociolinguistics.

Methods of the research. The following theoretical methods of the research were used to solve the tasks formulated in the article: a categorical method, structural and functional methods, the methods of the analysis, systematization, modeling, generalization. The experimental method was the method of organizing empirical research.

Results and their discussion

So, we think, that communicative tolerance consists of such elements:

- a high level of education and awareness;

- knowledge of several languages;

- the optimal set of communication skills and abilities about the realization of personal potential;

- following both universal and regional aspects of the society, local social values. In such a way, knowledge of the language and the ability to express our emotions adequately, today is one of the decisive factors of the development of communicative tolerance.

These processes have been also studied by many sciences. Communicative tolerance as a psychological phenomenon is especially interested in Psycholinguistics, Sociolinguistics, which have a sufficient arsenal of means and methods to study the subject of our research, which it is a psychological background of communicative tolerance in the paradigm of expressive emotional state in the discursive speech argumentation of the person.

In a broad sense, the problem of being communicative tolerant is related to the process of understanding the person's speech as a thought, conscious process. In the scientific field of Psycholinguistics, communicative tolerance was studied in the aspect of consciousness (Максименко, Ткач, Литвинчук & Онуфрієва, 2019). Recently, more attention is paid to the mediative function of communicative tolerance, according to the features of “language consciousness” (Hamedi, & Pishghadam, 2021). On the other hand, communicative tolerance is expressed in our speech by purely speech behavior is insufficient for the current level of the development of communicative tolerance. The latest phenomenon is especially expressed on the emotional level. So, communicative tolerance can be spontaneous, reactive, unconscious, while speech can be reflexive, conscious and also purposeful.

To reveal our topic in details, it should be noted that in conditions of increasing the level of communicative tolerance of the person, it is especially important to address the sociopsychological depths of our speech, in which the society and the individual express their emotions about the world. It is interesting for us if these emotions are expressed in a way of being communicative tolerant. This is especially true for children and young people. In the process of their socialization, a person acquires the necessary speech skills, constantly, while expressing their emotions. There are two ways to express them. They are verbal and nonverbal ones.

We think, that a successful attempt to combine a theoretical model of communicative tolerance is possible by use of Integrative Theory of Speech by modulating “surprise” with syntax (Greco, Canal, Bambini & Moro, 2020). Contemporary data from psychological literature indicate that Modern Psychology and Psycholinguistics study the psychological background of the person's speech activity (Ferdowsi, & Razmi, 2022). It is necessary for us to find a single holistic system of views, based on the mechanisms of speech generation and the mechanisms of speech perception (Gathercole, Pickering, Ambridge, & Wearing, 2004). This gap in science is filled by the latest Psychophysiological, Neurophysiological, Neuropsychological and Neurolinguistic Development of different conceptions of communicative tolerance. Addressing them is evidence that communicative tolerance, by its nature, is primarily a neuropsychophysiological manifestation (Huang, Loerts, & Steinkrauss, 2022).

Scientists (Івашкевич Ер., & Комарніцька, 2020), in particular, studied the phenomenon of succession as a manifestation of expressive speech (so called coding of speech), making sure that the anterior parts of the speech zones of the cerebral cortex are responsible for human ability to grasp the basic “deep” syntactic rules, to later translate them into successive extended tolerant speech. We'll interpret the process of communicative tolerance in such a way:

1. It is succession...

2. The coming of the person. after another in order.

3. The right. process, by which one person succeeds to the. rank.

That is, at this level, the human psyche is already able to establish a connection between expressions and emotions (Cui, Wang, & Zhong, 2021). These researches suggest that the functions of the right hemisphere (a brain) include the characteristics of deep structures related to ontogenesis of the person. It is in these gaps that the deep process of filling utterances takes place, which, in turn, is a reflection of sensory impressions with their subsequent expression in the form of speech expression of communicative tolerance. The speech of the right hemisphere of our brain is concrete and figurative, its vocabulary is objective, it reflects sensory impressions, its harmonious structure. Scientists (Engle, 2002) proved experimentally that the participation of hemispheres in the organization of speech function is carried out by constant and flexible interaction, providing a great opportunity to create a holistic sensory image of the world by the person.

Exactly, communicative tolerant speech is the expressions of discursive expression in a certain verbal application of communicative tolerance. Speech is also being studied from the standpoint of neurolinguistics and neuropsychology (Hornberger, & Link, 2012). In Psychology and Psycholinguistics, the problem of communicative tolerance is explained in the aspect of communication (Ivashkevych, & Onufriieva, 2021). In general, in Psychology communicative tolerant speech is interpreted primarily as a tolerant language that functions in the context of individual consciousness (Ivashkevych Er., Perishko, Kotsur, & Chernyshova, 2020).

Speech is also considered (mostly by linguists) as a tolerant language code, as a functioning communicative tolerance in a language system, because it has a semiotic (symbolic) character (Murphy, Melandri, & Bucci, 2021). Speech, at the same time, is a phenomenon of the human psyche, actualizing features of communicative tolerance, its higher mental functions. Communicative tolerance is a complex of systemic mental processes that are formed in our life. Communicative tolerance has a biological basis, but is social in origin (Mai, 2022).

Mental characteristics as constant manifestations of the person's psyche, their fixation and repetition in the structure of personality (intentions, motives, goals, a character, temperament, abilities, knowledge, consciousness, etc.) are also reflected in our speech and affect it. Especially, vividly mental characteristics of speech are manifested in oral speech through the means of intonation (tempo, timbre), by certain lexical means, in Extralinguistic paradigm.

Speech reflects the orientation of the individual, his/her attitudes and tendencies, needs, interests, inclinations and ideals. In this sense, the needs, interests, ideals, etc., are pantries of different sides of the multifaceted, communicative tolerance and at the same time, a single personal orientation, which, in turn, affects the quality of motivation of the person's speech activity (Jiang, Zhang, & May, 2019).

Scientists (Hogan, Adlof, & Alonzo, 2014) also speak about communicative tolerance as a model of the person's speech behavior. Communicative tolerance helps us to understand how to interpret its external manifestations in human mental activity as some separate external manifestations of mental activities, which, in turn, have a biological basis, being an integral part of internal mental processes, characteristics and states of a man.

An important definition of Psychology and Psycholinguistics is communicative tolerance in a paradigm of speech experience (Mykhalchuk, & Ivashkevych Er., 2021). It is a means of interaction of the individual with the world around him/her. Speech experience and communicative tolerance is organically connected with the cognitive and emotional experience of the person. This is especially important for our research, because we mean the main the immature speech experience for the development of communicative tolerance. People also compensate for this immaturity through the nonverbal apparatus and through enhanced expressions, in particular, in the communication system, in speech discourse. In this case, it should be appeared in our mind that this speech experience of being communicative tolerant is constantly transformed and enriched. Therefore, in this process, education, upbringing, participation in the whole process of socialization influences all social communication systems from the family to certain social groups a class, a group, informal groups, in the paradigm of which communicative tolerance is the most important phenomenon. In this direction, the uniqueness of the restructuring of speech experience is determined by the psychophysiological nature of the speech organization of the individual. Scientists (Mykhalchuk, & Khupavsheva, 2020) interpreted communicative tolerance as the individual speech system. Communicative tolerance, being a specific manifestation of the language system, is a social product. An entity that forms a speech system, is based on the language material of a group of people, in which communicative tolerance is developed, depending on a set of factors and the level of processing of language material. So, it is able to develop it both consciously and unconsciously. At the same time, emotional subject-object relations are fundamental for the implementation of speech behavior in a whole and communicative tolerance in its paradigm.

In this sense, the focus of specialists on functional guidelines that distinguish the natural process of communication (speaking and listening) from purposeful metalanguage of human activity (with the fundamental commonality of the source language material for processing it by the subject), should be the basis of psycholinguodidactic recommendations that claim to effectively manage educational activities related to the mastery of language by children, developing their communicative tolerance.

We think, that speech system of the person is the individual manifestation of the speech sounds, words and thoughts, which is derived from the language material (as a product of speech). The most common approach in science to communicative tolerance is the attitude to it as a manifestation of tolerant speech activity. It is also necessary to know that in the process of speech-thinking activity any tolerant statement is formed and expressed (if it is a question of foreign speech expression or some detection). Communicative tolerance is, according to our mind, a paradigm for “meaning-making” and “sense-making”, by use of the person the thoughts, which are accompanying our own emotions.

It should also be understood that communicative tolerance is the basics of speech behavior, the ability to analyze it, the ability to control our own thoughts and knowledge of how to make our speech more effective, how to determine the content and emotional outcome of speech interactions of subjects in the process of communication. Therefore, it is also logical that the adequacy of communication tolerant tactics depends on the person's speech experience, which is realized through a speech event, which, in turn, consists of the flow of speech behavior (what is reported (verbal speech), what is accompanied by some means (such as facial expressions, gestures) and the conditions and circumstances within which communicative tolerance is taking its place.

Communicative tolerance presents a living speech that is spoken, uttered into the process of unfolding some speech event. In such a way it is a discourse that includes not only narrative speech but also a dialogic speech, shows speech interaction between partners. In such a way, communicative tolerance predicts the mechanisms and means of discursive influences between the subjects, criteria and factors for the effectiveness of psychological and pedagogical influences, the impact of the subject's personal and professional significant experience, discursive influences in interpersonal interactions; relationships between the intentional characteristics of mass media discourse and the methods of speech influences used in its paradigm. communicative speech psychological social culture ethics

Taking into account the mental processes, communicative tolerance is considered as some coherent speech, the flow of speech, as a manifestation of speech activity in mental and everyday speech without a special speech plan, as a manifestation of speech activity capabilities of the language personality.

To our mind, psychological understanding of communicative tolerance might be as a social activity in a real world. From the standpoint of Psycholinguistic approach, communicative tolerance might be interpreted as a certain type of mentality, as a verbalized personal consciousness.

Understanding of communicative tolerance in the communicative aspect is presented by us as a communicatively integral speech activity; as a complex of communicative global phenomenon that contains, along with the text, extralingual markers and scripts, that affect speech production, perception and representation; as a set of functionally organized, contextual units of language use; as a communicative situations that include the consciousness of partners of communication and the text that is created in the process of communication; as a speech presentation, which is considered in its entirety of expression (verbal and nonverbal, paralinguistic ones) and show the direction of the person's thought, taking into account all extralinguistic factors (social, ideological, competence, cultural, psychological ones), which are the most important for successful speech interaction. From the linguistic point of view, communicative tolerance is interpreted as a complex syntactic whole, supra-phrase unity, a personal quality of the individual.

For Psychology, Psychodidactics, Linguo-pedagogical Psychology, Psycholinguistics and Linguo-methodology it is important to adequately interpret the structure of the speech situation and fully understand the arsenal of tolerant ways of speech presentation, which help the person to bring it into the whole paradigm, speech actions (a discourse). In general, the speech situation, according to our researches (Dubovyk, Mytnyk, Mykhalchuk, Ivashkevych Er., & Hupavtseva, 2020), contains the following components: partners of communication (actors); the relationships between them; goals and intentions of the participants of communication; conditions and circumstances that determine the structure of the speech situation.

Among the concepts related to speech, there are also: “speech act”, “act of presenting communicative tolerance”. That is, a person, who speaks, wants to get a certain result tolerantly, that is he/she is pronouncing, speaking, acting, doing some tolerant actions. Thus, speaking, a person interacts with the whole world, communicates with partners of speech, based on the mental reflection of the reality, which is fixed both in consciousness and subconscious of the person, in the process of interaction of perceptual, cognitive, mnemonic and emotional and volitional spheres of the psyche of the individual.

So, to our mind, communicative tolerance is a general assessment of psycho-emotional linguistic picture of the world in speech activity. A significant role in the qualitative design of speech activity is played by so-called auxiliary (paralinguistic) means: the pace of speech, the accentuation of some parts of speech in one way or another one, by emotional coloring of the message, timbre and strength of voice, diction, facial expressions and pantomime.

The emotional coloring of the utterance enriches the content of the message-utterance. So, the main in such a way is the information about how the speaker relates to this or that subject of communication. Sometimes it is the intonation that becomes decisive in deciphering the received speech message. The same context applies to facial expressions, pantomime, in general, to expressive gestures. They emotionally nourish messages, can carry the most important information about the person-vis-a-vis. Active, beautiful gestures, lively facial expressions can increase the overall expressiveness, draw attention to the expression, producing communicative tolerance by this person. The difficulty of controlling the paralinguistic component of speech activity is in that aspect, that they are usually insufficiently controlled by speakers. In general, communicative tolerant speech production is quite irrational. According to physiological and mental state of the participants of communication. The complex of these tolerant processes consists of: the generation of speech (by the individual speech act); speech perception (also, by the individual speech act); tolerant ways of the formation of speech (by the process of personalities' formation).

In this aspect it is important to know that Psycholinguistics does not consider the structure of the sign system, but the process of generation and perception of language signs in the minds of their speakers. It is the sign of psycho-emotional system that has a large place in both verbal and nonverbal speech. From the point of view of verbal speech, the semiotics of speech etiquette is important, in particular, as forgiveness, gratitude, apology, etc. For a young person, learning etiquette is a verbal act that covers the entire emotional communicative sphere, thus expressing the psychological attitude to a general design of communication.

From the point of view of Psycholinguistics, communicative tolerance is a specialized use of speech for providing communication, and in this aspect, it is a special means of communication with a special use of a language code. In turn, mental emotions are a tolerant expression of this code. This is especially important for young people who operate frames, scripts and cliches, coding and decoding of their emotions. This process is both rational and irrational. The rational nature of tolerant language coding occurs in the process of systematized learning, in the whole system of education in general. Irrational character of communicative tolerance takes place in informal communication - with the immediate environment, in the interaction of children and adults within various social groups, often informal ones.

In general, emotional psychological speech activity has in its content an implicit meaning (information). We mean implicit, hidden meaning, which is derived by the partner of communication from the values of the language units under the influence of a particular situation and the context of communication. In turn, the implicit means of the language system (not materially expressed ones) consist of various rules and patterns of organization of the language system, the rules of communication. From the point of view of our research, expressive emotional speech manifestations are the reaction of partners of communication to statements that have a certain message in a certain situation. These manifestations can be of three kinds, such as negative, neutral and positive ones.

Within the nature of communicative tolerance, we'd like to express situationally some main Psycholinguistic Approaches to give the definition to communicative tolerance: by a tolerant meaning as a generalized image of a particular object in the minds of native speakers; as a system of objectively fixed connections behind the word and the world; by use of different meanings as determining the individual meaning of the word, separated from the objective system of connections behind the word; by intentions of words and word combinations a tolerant communicative intention of the addressee (meaningful or intuitive ones), which determine the internal program and the methods of its implementation; the language ability (or abilities to speak tolerantly) as a system of unconscious rules of speech activity, which is formed in the mind of the child from his/her birth; a set of tolerant speech skills and abilities available to the child.

In general, these categories form a linguistic tolerant personality a communicative tolerant meaning of a person who has a set of abilities and characteristics that determine tolerant creation and perception of statements that differ by a degree of structural-linguistic complexity, depth, accuracy of reflection of the reality; communicative tolerance is internalized by the level of emotional experiences, which, in turn, have a complex of means associated with the level of education and upbringing of the individual, his/her socio-cultural experience. These experiences, having been at the level of complex conscious personal processes, have an “objective-subjective” nature and they are expressed as a rational-irrational complex of communicative tolerance.

So, these conceptual suggestions laid the foundations for understanding the language as means of regulating the person's mental activity as being in the process of direct interaction (communication activities) and in the process of gradual mastery of the child by the experience of his/her speech activity. Also, we've to take into account the transition of this experience from external to internal one. As a result of this process, it is appeared the possibility of internal programming of human actions (according to the internal programming of speech) and it is possible internal regulation of the person's behavior: a person acquires the ability to control his/her own behavior (including his/her own speech behavior). This process is called by us as internalization of speech behavior.

From a psychological point of view, this process is that the communicator tolerantly transforms his/her rational / irrational idea into speech units. In this case, a person operates with semantic units, which are determined by the communicative idea and the main intention of speech. In this process, the following are important: a person's language ability, his/her intellect; operational thinking; knowledge paradigm, having been expressed in lexicon; psyche, emotions, feelings of the speaker, etc.

So, communicative tolerant expression includes: communicative-modal aspect, intonation (in the oral version) and nonverbal means of communication. The statement is always compared with certain life situations. It is characterized by motivation, involvement into the non-verbal activity of the subject. In Psycholinguistics, various models of speech expression have been established.

A tolerant statement is generated by some motives biological, social, spiritual, cognitive, emotional ones. Motives are determined by the person's activity, including tolerant speech activity. Motivation of speech determines tolerant speech intentions. Communicative tolerance has a value: in a choice of the language; by the level of language skills; according to functional and stylistic factors; by sociolinguistic factors; according to affective factor; by paralinguistic factors; by individual speech experience; by speech situations (a context). In turn, the factor of communicative tolerant language skills depends, in particular, on the communicative situation, on the emotional attitudes of the partner of communication.

Since communicative tolerant speech is a means of communication in its form, it is directly related to the mental characteristics and states of the individual (as a manifestation of different feelings: moods, emotions, euphoria, anxiety, frustration, etc.; as a manifestation of the person's attention: concentration, inattention; as a manifestation of will, determination, confusion, composure; as a manifestation of thinking: doubts, confidence; as a manifestation of imagination: dreams, creative thoughts, etc.

Conclusions

In the research we revealed that speech behavior was caused by the social factors: culture, national characteristics, ethics, education, interpersonal communication, which in the process of internalization have become internal components of mental structures. At the same time, the external manifestations of psychophysiological processes of communicative tolerance in human speech behavior are expressed from the phonetic side of speech (as vibration of the person's voice, timbre modulation, increased tempo, speed of speech reactions).

The sociolinguistic factor of communicative tolerance includes: the choice of the language, the choice of style of speech, the design of the possibilities of the addressee, the very fact of communication. The affective factor is shown a strong emotional state, a state of excitement and pleasure. The affective state can seriously affect the actions of the subject, including communicative tolerant speech actions. The affective factor is especially displayed in extreme situations: during disputes, quarrels, insults. In a case of affect, the regulating and controlling functions of speech (consciousness) are weakened, a person can act and express himself/herself thoughtlessly. The paralinguistic factor of communicative tolerance also involves the use of nonverbal means of speech. Among the paralinguistic means of speech there are: a tone of speech, timbre, tempo of speech, gestures, facial expressions, posture. It is also necessary to know that the ability to predict the results of what it is said depends on personal socio-cultural experience, on natural intuition. Also, the subject of speech, who displays communicative tolerance, should always be ready for various changes in the communication process, for example: another partner of communication can join the communicative process; a conflict situation may appear. All these aspects will be described in further our publications.

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18. Ivashkevych Er., Perishko I., Kotsur S., Chernyshova S. Psycholinguistic Content of Complements in English and Ukrainian. Psycholinguistics. Психолінгвістика. Психолингвистика. Переяслав-Хмельницький, 2020. Вип. 28(2). С. 24-55.

19. Jiang Li, Zhang L. Jun, May S. Implementing English-medium instruction (EMI) in China: teachers' practices and perceptions, and students' learning motivation and needs. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism. 2019. Vol. 22, No 2. P. 107-119.

20. Mai Z. Caretaker input and trilingual development of Mandarin, Cantonese and English in early childhood (1;6-2;11). International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism. 2022. Vol. 25, No 9. P. 3389-3403.

21. Murphy S., Melandri E., Bucci W. The Effects of Story-Telling on Emotional Experience: An Experimental Paradigm. Journal of Psycholinguist Research. 2021. Vol. 50, No 1. P. 117-142.

22. Mykhalchuk Nataliia, Ivashkevych Ernest. The empirical research of understanding contemporary poetry by future philologists. Social Science Research Network (SSRN). 2021.

23. Mykhalchuk Nataliia, Khupavsheva Natalia. Facilitation of the Understanding of Novels by Senior Pupils as a Problem of Psycholinguistics. Psycholinguistics. Психолінгвістика. Психолингвистика. ПереяславХмельницький, 2020. Вип. 28(1). C. 214-238.

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18. Ivashkevych, Er., Perishko, I., Kotsur, S., & Chernyshova, S. (2020). Psycholinguistic Content of Complements in English and Ukrainian. Psycholinguistics. Psykholinhvistyka. Psikholingvistika Psycholinguistics. Psycholinguistics.Psycholinguistics, 28(2), 24-55.

19. Jiang, Li, Zhang, L. Jun, & May, S. (2019). Implementing English-medium instruction (EMI) in China: teachers' practices and perceptions, and students' learning motivation and needs. International Journal of Bi-

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25. Mykhalchuk, Nataliia, & Khupavsheva, Natalia (2020). Facilitation of the Understanding of Novels by Senior Pupils as a Problem of Psycholinguistics. Psycholinguistics. Psykholinhvistyka. Psilkholingvistika Psycholinguistics. Psycholinguistics. Psycholinguistics, 28(1), 214-238.

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