Technology and factors influencing Greek-style yogurt - a Review
Nutritional properties of Greek-style yogurt and methods of obtaining it. Analysis of the influence of the ratio of whey protein and casein on the granularity of the final product. Development of technology for production recombined concentrated powder.
| Рубрика | Кулинария и продукты питания |
| Вид | статья |
| Язык | английский |
| Дата добавления | 23.06.2022 |
| Размер файла | 612,5 K |
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4. Important factors that define yogurt quality
Two of the most important parameters that define yogurt quality and determine consumer acceptance are, unquestionably, the textural attributes and the WHC of the gel network [31, 37, 38, 51, 54, 130-132].
Rheology. Textural attributes, including the desired oral viscosity, are very important criteria that determine the identity, quality and consumer acceptance of yogurt [130, 131, 133]. Although texture is related to the sensory perception of a food product, rheology and structure of a product evaluated by instrumental methods also provide relevant information on its textural properties [51]. Skriver et al. [47], Richardson et al. [134], and Stanley and Taylor [135] reported that sensory texture analyses are highly correlated with the rheological properties of stirred yogurt and other semi-solid foods. Due to this fact, rheological properties of milk gels are important physical attributes which contribute to the overall sensory perception and functionality of these products [37]. Yogurt is defined as a weak viscoelastic gel system which is unable to keep its structural integrity during high shear [31, 53, 67]. Several authors reported the advantages of using oscillatory dynamic tests over other destructive rheological techniques (e.g., penetrometer, rotational viscometers) to evaluate the rheological characteristics of viscoelastic semisolid foods [31, 53, 67, 69, 136, 137]. The principal advantage of dynamic tests is that they enable measurements to be made without incurring structural damage to the samples. Therefore, this type of tests can be used to relate dynamic rheological parameters to molecular structures [137]. On the other hand, each penetration into or rotation in a gel network causes a breakdown in the elastically effective bonds, and the procedure thus fails to measure the actual physical characteristics of the gel. Once the gel structure is disturbed, it is rarely possible to re-form the gel structure in the same way, because yogurt is a metastable gel and any change in its enthalpic/entropic nature creates irreversible deformation. Thus, any kind of destructive effect may lead to atypical physical properties in the yogurt, and provide erroneous results. Due to this fact, dynamic studies are much more reliable than destructive rheological techniques for studying the physical properties of concentrate yogurt [67]. Consequently, during the last decades, dynamic tests have been widely used to investigate the rheological aspects of acid milk gels [43, 44, 48, 49, 113, 114, 116, 127-129, 138-148]. Small amplitude oscillatory tests are used to compare the rheological aspects of experimental and commercial samples of concentrate yogurt. Small deformation is defined as a small relative deformation which, when applied, does not disrupt the gel network structure, i.e., within the linear viscoelastic region. This type of test involves applying an oscillatory (sinusoidal) stress or strain to the material and measuring the strain or stress responses [31]. The magnitude and phase shift of the transmission depend on the material's viscoelastic nature. Much of the stress is transmitted in highly elastic materials while it is dissipated in frictional losses in highly viscous ones. The phase shift is large for highly viscous materials but small for highly elastic materials [149]. Several rheological parameters are determined in a small amplitude oscillatory rheology test. The storage modulus (G') expresses the magnitude of the energy that is stored in the material or recoverable per cycle of deformation (indicates the solid-like properties). The loss modulus (G") is a measure of the energy which is lost as viscous dissipation per cycle of deformation (reflects the liquid-like properties). Therefore, for a perfectly elastic solid, all the energy is stored, that is, G" is zero and the stress and the strain will be in phase. In contrast, for a liquid with no elastic properties, all the energy is dissipated as heat, that is, G' is zero and the stress and the strain will be out of phase by 90°. For a specific food, magnitudes of G' and G" are influenced by frequency, temperature, and strain. For strain values within the linear range of deformation, G' and G" are independent of strain. The loss tangent (tan 5) is the ratio of the energy dissipated to that stored per cycle of deformation and indicates the type of viscoelastic properties in a material. A high tan 5value (i.e., G'' >G') means that the material has liquid-like behavior [31, 150]. These parameters are defined as follows:
where сто is the amplitude of the share stress, yo is the amplitude of the strain and 5 is the phase angle difference between the stress and the strain [38, 150, 151]. In acid milk gels, the G' is determined by the number and/or strength of non-relaxing protein bonds (covalent bonds), whereas the G'' is determined by rapidly relaxing bonds (non-covalent bonds) [53]. The G' and G'' are similarly related to the spatial distribution and the number of proteinprotein bonds, which, therefore, suggests that tan 5 is related to the nature of the protein bonds [69].
Whey separation. Whey separation, i.e., the appearance of whey on the surface of a milk gel, is a common defect in fermented milk products such as yogurt [38, 132]. Whey separation negatively affects consumer perceptions of yogurt, as consumers think there is something microbiologically wrong with the product [31]. Due to this fact, manufacturers try to prevent whey separation by increasing the total solids content of milk, subjecting the milk to a severe heat treatment (to increase whey protein denaturation) or by adding stabilizers such as gelatin, pectin, starches, or gums [37]. Spontaneous syneresisis the usual cause of whey separation [31].Syneresis is defined as shrinkage of a gel and thisoccurs concomitantly with expulsion of liquid or whey separation. Spontaneoussyneresis is contraction of a gel without the application of any external forces(e.g., centrifugation) and is related to instability of the gel network (i.e., largescale rearrangements) resulting in the loss of the ability to entrap all the serumphase [132]. Hence, excessive rearrangements of particles in the gel network are responsible for high levels of whey separation [105]. Previous studies showed that several manufacturing conditions, such as low total solids content (protein content) of the mix, very low acid production (pH > 4.8), excessive heat treatment of the mix, and very high incubation temperatures, promote whey separation [38, 105]. Increasing content of protein by whey protein concentrate addition decreases the syneresis [152]. Whey separation is intimately related to the gel network's microstructure. Extensive rearrangements of protein particles in the gel network may be associated with increased local breakage of weak protein strands that make up the junctions in the network. This may result in the formation of weak spots and a less stable gel network [131]. Several authors reported that a high number of relaxing (non- covalent) protein bonds present in the gel favor rearrangements in the network and results in greater whey separation [105, 116, 127, 153]. As the number of non-relaxing (covalent) protein bonds increases, the level of rearrangements in the gel network decreases and a lower level of whey separation is obtained [105, 116, 127, 154]. Hence, high tan 5 values together with low G' values can be correlated with high levels of whey separation [105]. On the other hand, whey separation is also related to the permeability of the gel network. Finer networks with a higher level of cross-links and smaller pores will have less of a tendency to exhibit whey drainage under the force of gravity than coarser, more open structures [145]. yogurt protein casein recombined concentrated
Clusters formation. Undesired clusters can have a negative effect on a yogurt's texture. Numerous manufacturing parameters, such as severe heat treatments, excessive whey protein to casein ratios, high incubation temperatures, certain types of starter cultures and the use of excessive amounts of starter culture, are associated with textural defects of stirred yogurt like graininess (particles) or surface roughness (irregularities in the yogurt matrix) [51, 155]. Remeuf et al. [114] reported that graininess can be related to an increase in the casein micelles size caused by the interaction of micelles with denatured whey proteins. Puvanenthiran et al. [145] associated the observed granny texture with the formation of big whey protein aggregates.
Although manufacturing parameters have a direct influence on the formation of clusters, according to Lee and Lucey [31], stirred yogurts are likely to have clusters of protein aggregates which are presumably created by the collisions and shearing during the mixing process involved in their production.
Conclusions
Future research should be focused on the production of concentrated yogurt by direct recombination. It offers important advantages over other industrial production methods as it is more environmentally friendly and the product can be more nutritious. Still, rheological properties of recombined concentrated yogurt are different from those of strained yogurt. Usually they form weaker gels than those made by traditional or UF methods. Different dry dairy ingredients (especially with elevated content of whey protein) should be used for production of concentrated yogurt. Such products could be used as supplements of diet for sportsmen and physically active people. In the future it is also crucial to find an effective formulation for producing a recombined non-fat, additive-free type of Greek-style yogurt. Increased whey protein content (in form of whey protein isolate with low content of fat) could solve the problem of weaker texture of non-fat product.
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