American ideal of the self-made man

15. Individual Success and the Society

According to John Dewey John Dewey, Democracy and Education: Philosophy of Education, Macmillan, New York, 1916; Nevelestorteneti Olvasokonyv, BMETankonyvkiado, ed. L. Orosz, p. 97-110. (1859-1952), the philosopher, education determines the renewal of the society because it influences and regulates the individual's performances. He believed in a society in which educated individuals were able to shape an integral democratic community. Unifying Emerson's principles and Jefferson's concept of society J. Dewey recognized that individual fulfillment was essentially important for a democracy. Nevertheless he professed that success had to be interpreted not only in terms of money but it meant harmonizing individual personality and lifestyle. The implication of values of community in the school system would serve this end. These institutionalized moral values would shape and determine the condition of freedom for the individuals. Thus the community itself would form the individual's distinctive identity in the relationships with other people. He believed that democracy required suitable mutual communications and co-operation because without the individual's opportunity to govern his own life and pursue his own goals democracy could not exist. Success could not be measured by the individual's material achievement because it would not usually bring about fulfillment and happiness. He declared that the education was the most effective means of the development, and renewal of the society. He urged to build the scientific achievements in the educational curriculum so as those should promote the progress of the society. According to his philosophical teachings individual freedom in a democratic community was determined by the crucial role of free intelligence. His concept of intellectual mobility gave a new formulation for the ideal of success in America. An individual was intellectually mobile if he met demands for psychological self-knowledge and knowledge of others. Moreover, he accepted the necessity of the permanent learning, and training. In 1960's many intellectuals agreed to Dewey's conviction on the ever growing role of intelligence and especially that of the teachers in the American society.

16. towards the Twenty First Century

If a middle class American can boast of either advancement to leadership, or any promising partnership or entrepreneurship in any corporation he may consider himself an economically and socially successful individual nowadays. However this traditional ideal of success comes true only for comparatively few people. The new philosophers of success write practical guides for them. For example: Joe D. Batten's "Tough-Minded Management", "Tough-Minded Leadership" etc. These works provide techniques and tools and offer new insights, focus and motivation. Strengthening self - confidence and self-esteem they strive to enhance the personal effectiveness and to improve performance and boost productivity. These guides list a lot of indispensable qualities of the would-be leader such as: flexibility; performance orientation; expectations that stretch rather than directives that compress; intuition; no-nonsense accountability; focus on strengths, not weaknesses; vision and strategy; commitment to growing, changing dreams; ethical behavior; hard and dedicated work. Management is considered to be an ever-changing, ever-dynamic system of interacting minds. The precondition of both the success of the organization and that of the individual will be well-trained managing minds and spirits in the future. The new requirements for exceptional leadership or management skills include: team building, communications, and use of power, innovation, quality, productivity, motivation and integrity. These inspirational works emphasize the leader's commitment to the success of the organization to which he belongs. For this purpose he ought to fulfill such requirements as for example: "Keep physically fit, mentally and spiritually strong. Guard your habits; bad ones will destroy you. Pray about every difficult problem. Study and follow professional management principles. People are number one and their growth, loyalty, interest, and team spirit. Decisions: Men grow making decisions and assuming responsibility for them. Criticism: Don't criticize people, but make a fair appraisal of their qualifications. Remember, anything you say about someone may and usually does get back to them. See the good in people and try to develop those qualities. Inefficiency: If it cannot be overcome and an employee is obviously incapable of the job, find a job he can do or terminate now. Don't wait. Manage your time: Keep conversations short and to the point. Make every minute on the job count. Work fewer hours; some of us waste half our time. Delegate and hold accountable for results. Details: Let your staff take care of them. Save your energy for planning, thinking, working with department heads, promoting new ideas. Don't do anything someone else can do for you. Ideas and competition: Ideas keep the business alive. Know what your competitors are doing and planning. Encourage all management to think about better ways and give suggestions on anything that will improve business. Spend time and money on research and development. Don't try to do an employee's job for him; counsel and suggest. Think objectively and keep a sense of humor. Make the business fun for you and others." Batten J. D., Tough-Minded Leadership, AMACOM, New York, 1989, p. 13. No wonder, if anybody possesses all these skills his success is inevitable. Nevertheless, the best meaning of success has not been defined yet. The business world enriched the traditional theory of achievement of material success with psychological advices how to get other people to help you with your goals. However there are other spheres of human activity different from the business world for example: science, education and art where individuals may feel satisfied and free, that is, finally successful. This kind of intellectual success has not found its apostles yet.

Part Two

Social Ideals of the Self-made Man

17. Common Language and Lifestyles

In the society lifestyles of individuals may vary in dependence of goals of their lives. In American culture biblical, republican and modern individualist goals have historical roots. Some people prefer to achieve either material or positional priorities they have set for themselves. Others think that the goal of a good life is intimate involvement with the community and family. However there are also individuals who do not accept the conventions of the community and family. The fourth type eagerly participates in the political debates because he believes that this is the only way to create a more just society. These types form so called lifestyle enclaves. Within a lifestyle enclave individuals share patterns of appearance, consumption, leisure activities, practices and even some features of their private lives. However the members of a lifestyle enclave may have different political convictions and they are not interdependent. They do not form a community. Bellah R. N., Habits of the Heart, Univ. California, 1985, pp. 334-335.

18. Typical Representatives from Puritans to Yuppies

Several particular lifestyle enclaves have existed in order to realize the abovementioned dreams of a successful life and have been really American. Belonging to earlier periods of American history a few of them have disappeared or their practices have changed. Nowadays we can find only the descendants of the Puritan settlers, colonial farmers who were Jacks-of-all-trades, whale men, and frontiersmen such as hunters, trappers, pioneer farmers, cowboys, sheriffs etc. However the image of businessmen, salesmen, entrepreneurs, manufacturers and politicians has also changed during the history. The Protestant settlers American Pie, ed. Miklos Molnar, ELTE, Budapest, 1992, pp. 68-69. believed that by coming to America they were carrying out God's plan. They thought they had had a covenant with God and therefore they were chosen people. Faith helped them maintain their self-confidence. Calvinism appreciated one's good luck and economic success. That was unmistakable evidence justifying one's elect status and right to enter the heaven. The religion supported hard work and self-examination because these were the obvious means of the economic virtues. They despised the lazy people. They said: "Noe idle drone bee permitted to live amongst us". Laziness and idleness were regarded indisputable signs of damnation. Therefore they did not recognize the rich had more right to rest than the poor. Tradition of toil was the kernel of work ethic created by them. Having nothing to do was a shame. Massachusetts Bay Colony was highly undemocratic. Only a few well-off church ministers were given right to vote. According to their conviction self-discipline and self-improvement made possible to born-again as true Christians and the virtues always were to be rewarded.

From the early years up to the Civil War (1860) the frontiersmen American Pie, ed. Miklos Molnar, ELTE, Budapest, 1992, pp. 109-111. were individuals almost free from the government control and free from constraints and corruption of property. The "Wild West" demanded self-reliance, inventiveness and the can-do spirit. The struggle against the wilderness ensured equality of opportunity for all the rugged pioneers and small farmers. They had to develop their physical prowess and manhood. Courage, endurance and discipline were highly appreciated qualities in them. It would have been nonsense to boast of aristocratic ancestors far from any settlements. They could not count on any help from the state. They had to be self-made men. Violence or friendship characterized their relations. They either lived in peace with the Indians tribes or fought against them. It was a question of life or death to win or be defeated. However the pioneers had enough self-confidence and optimism to overcome the difficulties. They were idealists and stubbornly believed in their worldly calling. Frontier men's common features implied restlessness, dominant individualism and a devoted working either for good or evil. Monotony and loneliness were common problems and that was why strangers and travelers were welcome. Casual friendliness and hospitality were a distinctive tradition at the frontier.

Cowboy American Pie, ed. Miklos Molnar, ELTE, Budapest, 1992, pp.119-120 was a prototype of the frontiersmen until the eighties of the last century. The myth, the romantic legend of the cowboy, has been created since then. He was a mounted hero of the nature whose skill and virtuosity in horsemanship captured the imagination. His clothes designed to be functional have become a symbol of a life-style in our century and survived in the popular and fashionable jeans. The American Western films, commercial advertisements and the country music greatly contributed to show the cowboy as a folk hero and national symbol. Individualism had strengthened by the frontier way of life became one of the basic idea of the new republic after the War of Independence. Nevertheless, Thomas Jefferson warned the people: "Americans will have to move beyond the individualism of business ideas and of interest group government if they are to deal effectively with the serious problems which affect them all." However it seems that Americans have paid little attention to this warning. They have preferred to share H. D. Thoreau American Pie, ed. Miklos Molnar, ELTE, Budapest, 1992, pp. 114-115, the great philosopher's, views who wrote that there was not any reason why a citizen should "ever for a moment, or in the least degree, resign his conscience to the legislator," claiming that "we should be men first, and subjects afterwards."

The farmers Stevenson D. K., American Life and Institutions, Ernst Klett Verlag, Stuttgart, 1987. p. 26, 60 formed the majority of the population till the era of the industrial revolution and mechanization in America. The biggest part of the GNP used to be produced on family farms and ranches. This apprenticeship to the soil has also shaped the American character. Frugality, practical thinking, inventiveness can be traced to the pioneer time when few skilled craftsmen and artisans were available and these people had to found the way to do any work, if not, it just did not get done. The Homestead Act in 1862 providing free land for settlers gave a boost to the agriculture. Nowadays, less than three per cent of the population is involved in agriculture, yet American farmers produce more food than ever before. Americans have always held a romantic image of the family farm. It has been the symbol of self-reliance, dutiful life, and family entrepreneurship. Americans have always preferred the spirit of free enterprise and initiative. These entrepreneurs Stevenson D. K., American Life and Institutions, Ernst Klett Verlag, Stuttgart, 1987. p. 26, 60 have been willing to run a risk and give up security so as they should become their own bosses either in their own workshops or groceries. The boom of American industry in the Gilded Age due to the laissez-faire doctrine rendered great importance to the individual employer. Despite their emphasis on the individual, Americans demonstrated that they can work well in families or other small groups. A mixture of teamwork and competition characterizes these small businesses.

Practical experience and expertise have been especially appreciated and respected distinctive qualities. However the ugliness of buildings and machines can be attributed to the thrift and practical thinking of these entrepreneurs. Nowadays the well-off white, Anglo-Saxon Protestants American Pie, ed. Miklos Molnar, ELTE, Budapest, 1992, p.134, 167 (WASP) whose ancestors immigrated before the Civil War or earlier form an aristocracy and a lifestyle enclave according to their inherent breeding, education, manners, refinement and good taste. They are politicians, legislators, bankers, Episcopal ministers, doctors, or college professors. Many of them may be proud of their great great grandfathers who were real self-made men. WASPs as a modern American aristocracy claim that their vocation is to supervise the realization of the purpose of the nation; that is, to create a just society according to their faith and the republican ideals of their ancestors and to manifest the national glory. They are engaged in sports like tennis, golf and fox hunting moreover they have several post dinner drinks, and give and attend parties, and belong to a club, and keep pets at home and all these things seem to be obligatory for a real WASP.

Yuppies American Pie, ed. Miklos Molnar, ELTE, Budapest, 1992, p.134, 167 are young, educated, well-dressed middle-class professionals who pursue material success with might and main. They are the modern nouveau rich who eagerly wish to rise in the society. They have good jobs in the management of firms, and companies, or they work as brokers or salesmen. Though they earn a lot of money, savings do not play a primary role for them. They are willing to spend on expensive possessions and activities so as to keep pace with the others. They seem to be induced to show up with their prosperity. They expect you to respect their way of living as well as their bank account. Their cars and clothes symbolize their values, hopes and dreams. They are generally baseball and rugby fans. Nevertheless they fail to meet the WASP standards. The knick name, yuppie, is used as a disapproval of their lifestyle. Nevertheless, they embody the traditional idea of the individual material success and may be regarded as the genuine self-made men of the second half of our century.

19. Famous Self-made Men and Their Stories

Though derived from good family John Winthrop Bellah R. N., Habits of the Heart, Univ. Calif., 1985, p. 29. (1588-1649) was among the first Puritans who left England and started a new life in America in 1630 and soon he became the first governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. He was successful in creating an ethical community during his twelve terms as governor. He preached "natural liberty": a freedom to do whatever, evil as well as good, however one has to stand for it with the hazard of life. In his famous sermon "A Model of Christian Charity," Winthrop outlined the basic principles of life in the wilderness: "We must delight in each other, make others' conditions our own, rejoice together, mourn together, labor and suffer together, always having before our eyes our community as members of the same body."

Being a son of a soap and candle maker Benjamin Franklin Szabolcs O., Ki kicsoda a tortenelemben?, Laude, Bp. 1990 (1706-1790), politician, diplomat, scientist, and philosopher could not afford to attend any college and was largely self-educated. As a child he apprenticed himself to his elder brother, a printer. In 1723 he went to London for a further training in typography. By the age of forty-two, Franklin's "Poor Richard's Almanac" had made him sufficient fortune and he could retire from managing his printing house, bookshop and stationary in Philadelphia and devote himself to his political, philanthropic, and scientific interests for the rest of his life. In 1753-1754 he worked as deputy postmaster of the English Colonies and established the first American library and organized a philosophical society. From 1757 to 1762 and from 1765 to 1775, Franklin represented Pennsylvania and other colonies in London. In the War of Independence as an elected member of the Continental Congress took part in drafting of the Declaration of Independence. From 1776 to 1785 he represented the United States in Paris and it was mainly his merit that the French Monarchy gave considerable help to America. From 1785 to 1787 he worked as the chairman of the Pennsylvanian Legislation Assembly. In 1787 as a member of the National Assembly he took part in working out the Constitution. He supported Thomas Jefferson's initiation for the abolition of slavery. As a scientist he recognized the nature of lightning, and atmospheric electricity and constructed the first lightning-conductor in 1752.

Thomas Jefferson Szabolcs O., Ki kicsoda a tortenelemben?, Laude, Bp. 1990 (1743-1826), statesman and philosopher, the third president of America, came from a well-to-do planter family of western Virginia. Being financially independent, he early took an active part in the politics. In 1776 as a member of the Continental Congress he composed the Declaration of Independence, by which he committed himself to political equality of men: "All men are created equal" and have individual right to pursue their happiness. Nevertheless he was against the extremes in wealth and poverty he saw in Europe. He attributed it to the unsound social structure and believed that the free people in America would never face similar problems. From 1779 to 1781 worked as governor of Virginia State. Between 1785 and 1789 he was the ambassador of the United States in Paris. He greeted the French Revolution. However, the American government did not support his standpoint. He worked from 1797 to 1801 as vice president and from 1801 to 1809 as president of the USA. During these years he consequently fought for his political creed. His philosophy was mainly influenced by Locke and Rousseau, however he remained a religious individualist. Though he can not be considered a self-made man in the strict sense of the word he symbolizes with his biography his theory of natural aristocracy and unlimited vertical mobility.

Daniel Boone American Pie, ed. Miklos Molnar, ELTE, Budapest, 1992, p. 110., Wilde West hero, was famous for his physical strength and skills. The Indians captured him in 1778 but instead of killing him they made him a member of their tribe. Later he could escape. Boone showed an extraordinary ability to meet the cruel challenges of the wilderness. He was admired as a bold, rugged individualist who could conquer and survive in any hostile environment.

Abraham Lincoln Szabolcs O., Ki kicsoda a tortenelemben?, Laude, Bp. 1990. (1809-1865), statesman, became President of USA in 1861. Mill Creek, a small farm, in Kentucky was his birthplace. His father, a rather poor farmer moved from Virginia to Kentucky and later to Illinois in pursuit of better living conditions and Lincoln had to work as a day-laborer on a ferry boat on the Ohio River from the age of eighteen. He worked in New Orleans and when his father settled in New Salem, he became a postman. Next station was Vandalia at the Kaskasia River, where his political career began. He became the representative of the Sangamon County in 1836. In the same year Lincoln was entitled to practice law as an attorney. In 1854 he became one of the leaders of the reorganized Republican Party. Though the southern slave-owners protested against him, Lincoln was elected President in 1860 by the abolitionists who were mainly representatives of the industrial bourgeoisie and the small farmers in the northern states. As the democratic movement had strengthened in the Civil War, his politics had become more and more resolute. The legislation gave freedom the black slaves in the Southern States and provided federal land for settlers (The Homestead Act in 1862). His revolutionary measures greatly contributed to the outcome of the Civil War in favor of the Northern States. In 1864 he was re-elected with majority of votes. However a fanatic agent of the South murdered him on 14th April 1865. He was one of the greatest Presidents of the United States, an honest, unselfish and talented philanthropist whom his strong resolution helped to make an amazing career. His personality and life story are considered to be the symbol and pattern of the American self-made man.

Similarly to Franklin Walt Whitman American Literature, ed. Andras Deak, ELTE, Budapest, 1993, pp. 175-190. (1819-1892) also derived from a poor family. His father was a carpenter. He also educated himself and became a printer and journalist; however he could not achieve financial security in his life. For Whitman success did not mean material acquisition. The poet of the "Leaves of Grass" regarded one's life successful if it was rich in sensual and intellectual experience, full of intensive feelings, and open to anybody else without distinction.

Andrew Carnegie Szabolcs O., Ki kicsoda a tortenelemben?, Laude, Bp. 1990. (1835-1919), the immigrant from Scotland, came from a poor weaver family. His American career commenced in 1848 when he got an underpaid job in a cotton factory in Pittsburgh. Soon he left this job when he realized how greater opportunities the railroad would present. In an amazingly short period he rose to the top of the Pennsylvania Railroad Company and made his fortune. Later he proved to be successful in any business he was interested in. Oil, iron making and bridge building were his fields of activity. At a time the Carnegie Steel Company was the leading steel concern in US. He paid a great attention to and studied the nature of his success and laid emphasis on publishing his experience and conviction. He declared in his essay "Gospel of Wealth" (1889) the millionaires' duty, namely, that they should unselfishly sacrifice a part of their wealth for the good of the public. He demonstrated his philanthropy in practice by making many foundations in the field of culture and education. The most famous ones are the Carnegie Institute of Washington and the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. He believed in the mission of rich men therefore he said: "Upon the sacredness of property civilization itself depends - the right of the laborer to his hundred dollars in the saving bank, and equally the legal right of the millionaire to his millions."

The inventor, Thomas Alva Edison Szabolcs O., Ki kicsoda a tortenelemben?, Laude, Bp. 1990. (1847-1931), did not regularly go to school in his childhood. He early had to provide for his living. As a young man he wrote, edited and published a newspaper and spent his income for his experiments. First he made the telegraph perfect in 1868. Then he established a laboratory and patented about 1000 inventions among others the carbon microphone for Bell's telephone (1876), the cylindrical phonograph (1878), the carbon filament for the incandescent lamp (1879). Then he put the public lighting station into operation in New York in 1882 and it was followed by the movie projector (1889). Later he perfected the iron-nickel alkaline battery. He was given Nobel prize in 1915.

Although Henry Ford Hill N., Think and Grow Rich, Wilshire Book Co., 1972 (1863-1947), industrialist, did not attend any college, he was able to make a revolution in the mass production. A brilliant organizer and manager, he used the assembly line first in his car factory. He was not ashamed of being poorly educated because, he would say, he could be well-informed as long as he could afford to employ the best scientific, legal or financial experts. Ford accepted and successfully used the principles of success. His endurance was legendary. Ford was willing to spend an incredible sum of money for several years in order to have the famous V-8 car engine developed in spite of his rather pessimistic engineers' opinion on the feasibility of such a project. Ford never gave up his aims. He introduced the norms and set piece-rates and calculated the time necessary for any single operation in his factories. He may be regarded as a pioneer in the field of standardization of parts of machines as well. Ford made up quickly and almost never changed his mind nevertheless he believed in the brainstorming and mastermind.

Conclusion

20. The Place and Value of the Ideal of Success

The ideal of success has largely contributed to shaping the achievement-oriented American character. It has strengthened their belief in viewing themselves as shapers of their own destiny. The great American philosophers and thinkers have reinforced the traditional conviction that the individual fate depends on one's personal qualities and his industrious work. Success in America has been measured by money one has made in life. Wealth and social status have become infallible signs of success. Therefore Americans have unquenchably pursued success as if it had been the synonym of happiness. The historical process of the quest for success has developed such values as the faith in conquering the environment, the born again experience, the control of one's time, self-help, "do-it-now" orientation, and practical thinking. American Pie, ed. M. Molnar, ELTE, 1992, pp. 155-159. The pursuit of success has greatly influenced the interpersonal relationships as well. They were determined by religious individualism in the last centuries and such behavior patterns as informality, directness, openness, and honesty characterized them. However the cruel competition in the industrial capitalism insinuated the perception that success depends on psychological manipulation of others and nowadays guides are available which instruct the reader how to influence, intimidate, and seduce people. In accordance with the theory of survival of the fittest, these books equip us with practical advice either how to be assertive or how to defend ourselves against manipulation. Such works are, for example, "The Art of Manipulation" by Josef Kirschner (1980), and "When and How to Say No or Way to The Self-respect" by Alexander Oakwood (1989). The new American is an organization man who eagerly wants to get along well with others and attempts to sell his personality as if it were a commodity with an assignable market value. The traditional values prove to be corruptible. His neurotic personality needs affection, reassurance and gratification on behalf of the others. Besides the traditional material advancement, the modern ideal of success contains a very important component: the individual expects that the organization, to which he belongs, should approve and accept his performance and regard it to be advantageous and profitable. Lasch C., The Culture of Narcissism, Warner, N. Y., p. 123. Nevertheless the ideal of self-made man has negative aspects as well. The worship of the omnipotent profit, the pursuit of material success have led to extreme forms of realization of the individual interest and often brought about distortion of the individual character. The manifestation of such qualities as cruelty, inconsideration to others, treachery, and shrewdness are largely due to thirst for power and money. The extreme emphasis on the individual caused the negligence of the common interests and even antisocial and inhuman behavior in certain historical period.

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