The influence of the East India Company on the interrelation of fine ceramic art of Spain and England

Postgraduate student at the Department of Fine Arts Borys Grinchenko Kyiv University (Kyiv, Ukraine)

The article provides coverage of the circumstances of emergence and development of fine ceramic art stylistics of Spain and England. It has been found that the crucial role in mutual enrichment of the porcelain and earthenware culture of the mentioned countries belonged to the commercial activities of the East India Company. Starting from the 17^th century the latter under the laws of England carried out continuous deliveries of ceramics from East to West, and subsequently - performed a mutual trade between the mentioned European countries as well. As a result of such interaction within three centuries, Spanish and British fine ceramic art went through the following phases: 1) the imitation of Asian examples; 2) synthesis of eastern and western features as for form-making and decorating of crockery; 3) establishing its own local tradition that was gradually becoming free from the influence of chinoiserie.

Strong interrelation between the abovementioned countries is evidenced by such production facilities in Spain as Manufactura De Alcora, Buen Retiro Porcelain Factory, La Cartuja-Pickman Ceramics Factory. In their practice of making the ceramic mixture and manner of decoration, products of the mentioned centers appealed to the pieces of work of the leading western centers of arts of the 17^th-18^th centuries, mostly Italian and English. A good visual evidence of the above mentioned are shapes of the Alcora tableware of 1770s, Buen Retiro tea and coffee cup and saucer sets of the second part of the 18^th century, motifs ofpainting on La Cartuja-Pickman products of 1840s, decoration of the interior of one of the rooms in the building of San Lorenzo de El Escorial with ceramic tile in Wedgwood style. Besides, we can speak about the reverse influence as well. In particular, in 1850s the English extensively imported luster pottery from the shores of Spain and used Spanish subjects in painting (Henshall, Williamson and Partners).

It has been found that the period of imitation of the British porcelain and earthenware was not long, however, it is of interest for the holistic comprehension ofthe mentioned art of England and its role in further transformations of the Spanish fine ceramics.

The research methodology is based on the art analysis ofproducts of Spanish and British manufactories of the first part of the 18^th - early 19^th centuries. Such methods have been used as axiological, historical and chronological, comparative historical and historical and cultural, which made it possible to provide insights into the interrelation of the art of `white gold' of the mentioned countries. Besides, we used cross-cultural analysis to compare and single out the adopted and authentic features of form-making and decoration of the porcelain and earthenware of Spain and England.

Key words: fine ceramics, porcelain, earthenware, jasperware, England, Spain, 18^th-19^th centuries.

Ольга ДЄТОЧКА,

аспірант кафедри образотворчого мистецтва Київського університету імені Бориса Грінченка (Київ, Україна)

ВПЛИВ ОСТ-ІНДСЬКОЇ КАМПАНІЇ НА ВЗАЄМОЗВ'ЯЗОК ТОНКОКЕРАМІЧНОГО МИСТЕЦТВА ІСПАНІЇ І АНГЛІЇ

У статті висвітлено обставини формування і розвитку стилістики тонкокерамічного мистецтва Іспанії й Англії. З'ясовано, що першочергову роль у взаємозбагаченні культури фарфору-фаянсу окреслених країн від- гравала торговельна діяльність Ост-Індської кампанії. Починаючи з XVII століття остання під юрисдикцією Англії реалізовувала безперервне постачання кераміки зі Сходу на Захід, а згодом впливала на обопільну торгівлю між вказаними європейськими країнами. Внаслідок такої взаємодії упродовж трьох століть іспанське та британське мистецтво тонкої кераміки пройшло такі стадії: 1) наслідування азійських зразків; 2) синтезу східних і західних рис щодо формотворення і декорування посуду; 3) започаткування власної місцевої традиції, яка поступово звільнялася від впливу шинуазрі.

Про тісний взаємозв'язок зазначених вище країн свідчать такі виробництва Іспанії, як мануфактура «Алко- ра», фарфорова фабрика «Буен Ретіро», керамічний завод «Ла Картуя-Пікман». Продукція вказаних осередків апелювала у технології виготовлення маси й характеру оздоблення до творів провідних західних художніх центрів XVII-XVIII століть, здебільшого італійських і англійських. Вдалим унаочненням окресленого є форми столового посуду Алкора 1770-хроків, чайні та кавові пари Буен Ретіро другої половини XVIII ст., мотиви розписів виробів Ла Картуя-Пікман 1840-хроків, декорування інтер'єру однієї із кімнат будівлі Сан-Лоренцо-де-Ель- Ескоріал у Мадриді плиткою у стилі Веджвуду. Крім того, визначено й зворотний вплив. Зокрема, у 1850-х роках англійці активно імпортували люстровану кераміку з берегів Іспанії та використовували іспанські сюжети у розписах («Хеншел, Вільямсон і партнери»).

З'ясовано, що період наслідування британського фарфору-фаянсу не був тривалим, проте він становить інтерес для цілісного розуміння означеного мистецтва Туманного Альбіону та його ролі у подальших трансформаціях іспанської тонкої кераміки.

Методологія дослідження базується на мистецтвознавчому аналізі творів іспанських і британських мануфактур першої половини XVIII - початку ХІХ століття. Застосовано аксіологічний, історико-хронологічний, історико-порівняльний та історико-культурний методи, які дозволяють глибше розкрити взаємозв'язок мистецтва «білого золота» згаданих країн. Крім цього, було використано крос-культурний аналіз для порівняння та виокремлення запозичених і самобутніх рис формотворення і декорування фарфору-фаянсу Іспанії й Англії.

Ключові слова: тонка кераміка, фарфор, фаянс, кам'яна яшмова маса, Англія, Іспанія, XVIII-ХІХ століття.

Target setting. The issue of peculiarities of genesis and changes of the fine ceramics of Spain and Britain is mostly represented in the context of characterization of activities of particular factories and manufactories. However, if we consider the relations and mutual influences of porcelain and earthenware production facilities of the mentioned countries, it should be noted that little attention is given to this aspect in literature. Due to this fact it is difficult to give the low-down on the artistic mutual enrichment, as well as on further separation of authentic features of the English and Spanish “white gold”.

Purpose of the study is to define the specific features of the development and the interrelation of form making and decorating, as well as artistic production practices of fine ceramics of Spain and England.

Analysis of the study. We used the historical and chronological method that makes it possible to throw light on historical processes of the commercial activities of the East India Company that was of great importance for the issue under study. The comparative historical method was used to define historic ties of Spain and England within the specified period, their role for the fine ceramic art. For the purpose of providing the insights into the mutual influences of form making and decorating of porcelain and earthenware products of the mentioned countries we used the cross-cultural analysis. Notably, the latter is crucial for comparing pieces of work, for singling out the adopted and authentic features of the manufacturing practices, form making and decorating of porcelain and earthenware.

Instead, the historical and cultural method is used to define the cultural background of the mentioned period that was of value to find out the specific features of the development and interrelation of the fine ceramic arts of the mentioned countries. And the art analysis of the pieces of work made by Spanish and British manufactories was carried out for a more profound covering of the topic.

The issue of reflecting the interrelation between the eastern and western fine ceramics is illustrated by the pieces of work from the collections of the Victoria and Albert Museum in the UK, the Metropolitan Museum of Art and the Andalusian Museum of Art in Spain. Besides, of special interest are photos of certain items and legends to them represented by the Cervantes Virtual Center (Spain) (Porcelain Buen Retiro, 2021) and in a number of catalogues of the European porcelain and earthenware.

Among the articles reviewed we should point out to the importance of explorations of Russian fine art expert T B. Arapova “Chinese Porcelain in the Hermitage” (2013), of О. Prokofieva Monteith (2017). The former traces back to extensive use of chinoiserie motif and its meaning in the decor of porcelain and earthenware of different countries of Europe in the second part of the 17^th century (Arapova, 2013: 23-26). While the second work already characterizes purely European form of crockery that was in the assortment of fine ceramics of England (Prokofieva, 2017), and subsequently, due to the latter, it materialized in the forms of Spanish products.

A valuable source of information about decoration of pieces of work from the mentioned countries is the “Handbook of Pottery and Porcelain Marks” (1996) by J. Cushion (UK). In the handbook the author demonstrates variations of markings of European porcelain manufactories and factories of 17^th-19^th centuries (Cushion, 1996). Notably, he delivers a brief information-packed review of the peculiarities of the mentioned production facilities.

The publications that give a deeper insight into the specific features of fine ceramic pieces of work of the Kingdom of Naples include articles by Spanish authors E. Gomez “Longton connection: Pickman and Seville” (2014) and L. Montoto Carlos “Pickman, el primer emprendedor moderno de Sevilla” (2021). The mentioned works mostly review the phases of activities of La Cartuja-Pickman Ceramics Factory (Gomez, 2014) and single out the attractive features of their pottery (Montoto, 2021). However, what remains to be a live issue is the way the mutual influences are reflected between the English cultures of form making and decorating and Spanish pieces of work made by the mentioned manufacturers.

Statement of basic materials. It is known that in the first half of the 16^th century Chinese porcelain pieces of work, in a roundabout way, reached the shores of Portugal that bordered on Spain, and they were even custom-made by ceramists of the Celestial Empire. This is evidenced by one of the earliest dated fine ceramic items of the first decades of the century mentioned above - a jug with a coat of arms of King Philip ІІ (ill. 1).

It is beyond argument that porcelain went mainstream in Europe starting from the late 16^th - early 17^th centuries. That went hand in hand with the activities of the East India Company and with the growth of its potential on the Eurasian continent. First it was headed by Holland, occasionally Spain got involved into the management of processes of stock movement from China to Europe. In late 1600 the British East India Company was established that ensured a continuous movement of porcelain and earthenware from the Far East to the European territories for almost three hundred years. Thus, on the cusp of the mentioned centuries the import of Holland only could reach about 200 thousand items per year.

Whereas, due to its high cost and tough stuff about exporting, fine ceramics was available mainly for well-off sections of society. Accordingly, first and foremost, the connoisseurs of the `white gold' were the monarchs of the leading European countries like Portugal, Spain, France, Holland and England (Arapova, 2013: 24).

An open access to a Chinese port in Canton (now the city of Guangzhou) - the largest production and distribution center of the Celestial Empire porcelain was crucial for commercial intercourse expansion between East and West on the cusp of late 16^th- early 17^th centuries. Due to that Europe gradually increased the amount of goods exported from China, while the forms were adapted in the course of time according to the form making and decoration demands of new consumers. In this way the varieties of cups with handles, saucers, sugar bowls, milk jugs, chocolate jugs and gravy boats made their appearance that had not been intrinsic to fine ceramics of China before. Asian masters increasingly produced custom-made goods ordered by monarchs, individual businessmen and collectors. An interesting visual evidence for the above mentioned is a china set made for John Elwick, the director of the English East India Company (up to 1730) (ill. 2).

Ill. 1. Jug. Porcelain painted with underglaze blue (the national emblem of Portugal is turned upside down by mistake). Chine. 1520-1540

Besides, the fact that Britain held the trade routes in check contributed to the circulation of pottery between the European countries. That resulted both in appearance of chinoiserie motifs on forms and in decoration of items made by the European porcelain and earthenware manufactories and in reflection of the features intrinsic to the products of neighboring art centers that were in contact with each other.

It is worth mentioning that a vigorous sea-born trade and establishing colonies on the territories of India and America were constant causes for conflicts between Spain, Britain and France. In that context the wars between the former two (1727-1729, 1740-1748, 1756-1763) did not interfere with their occasional cooperation. Thus, in times of peace ports in certain Spanish cities and colonies in India and America were open for trade in British products. Instead, England imported Seville luster pottery, while British masters adopted the subjects for decoration of their own porcelain items from the latter (Henshall Manufactory, Williamson and Partners) (Bates, 2014: 24).

The common problem for the countries under study was also a break-up of commercial relations with China. Since Spanish and British goods, except opium, were of no interest for the East, that resulted in so-called «opium wars» that were detrimental for the trade. The above mentioned can be considered one of the reasons that encouraged the expansion of porcelain production facilities in Europe.

In spite of troubled territorial relations between Spain and Britain and their short-term mutual activities, an intermediated mutual enrichment of the fine ceramic art of the countries under review was nonetheless gradually in progress. This is evidenced by one of the oldest centers of art of the Kingdom of Naples Manufacture De Alcora that was founded in 1727 by Count of Aranda, don Don Buenaventura Pedro de Alcantara Abarca de Bolea, supported by the kingship of Bourbons.

At the early stages of production the enterprise specialized in making glazed earthenware, and the product range included crockery, sing plates (plaquettes), lockets, statuettes and portrait busts. As for the sources of inspiration, masters mainly turned to the artworks of French artists. From the date of its establishment the production of Alcora items was rapidly expanded, and subsequently the assortment of ceramic products of the latter started to be exported to Europe. In 1742 under the mentorship ofthe founder's, Don Pedro's son - Pablo Ximenez de Urrea, the mentioned manufactory started to produce soft-paste porcelain and creamware (Tatlock, 2011: 56).

A considerable weight for Alcora production was carried by participation of England and Spain in the active trading processes of the 1730s within the East India Company. It resulted in delivery of the latest novelties of the English ceramic industry to Spain. That, in its turn, brought about manufacturing of products with the adopted motifs for decoration of pieces of work, from Staffordshire, in particular. This is evidenced by a shell-shaped saltcellar from soft-paste porcelain that in return takes its shape from a monteith (ill. 3) (Prokofieva, 2017). It is known that the maritime motif in form making of the English crockery is traced as far back as to Nicholas Sprimont's silverware of the early 17^th century, and starting from 1760s it can be found in the works by Chelsea, Bow, Vauxhall (ill. 4).

A well-known factory in Spain is Buen Retiro porcelain factory that existed from 1760s to the first decades of the 19^th century. The history of this business goes hand in hand with the Capodimonte Porcelain Manufactory (Italy). After ascending the throne in 1759 Charles III, king of Spain, closed down the latter, and sent a considerable number of pottery masters to Buen Retiro that was in the vicinity of Madrid. By the way it should be noted that the founders of Capodimente were the mentioned Charles ІІІ de Bourbon and his wife Maria Amalia of Saxony who in their production took cues from the famous Meissen and later on aspired to surpass it. This circumstance makes it possible to get the idea of the level of skills of the experts of the Italian porcelain and earthenware factory, as well as of the Spanish one further on (Cushion, 1996: 403).

Ill. 3. Salt Cellar and cover. Porcelain painted with enamels. Manufactura De Alcora. 1770

Ill. 4. Salt Cellar (monteith-based shape). Porcelain painted with enamels and moulded Chelsea Porcelain factory. 1745-1750