State and perspectives of the development economics education

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04EAMN213

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04EAMN213

State and perspectives of the development economics education

Anatoliy Pavlov

Institute of Government, Right and Innovative Technologies

Russia, Moscow

Economics education or economic education is a field within economics that focuses on two main themes:

? the current state of, and efforts to improve, the economics curriculum, materials and pedagogical techniques used to teach economics at all educational levels;

? research into the effectiveness of alternative instructional techniques in economics, the level of economic literacy of various groups, and factors that influence the level of economic literacy.

Economics education is distinct from economics of education, which focuses on the economics of the institution of education.

Numerous organizations devote resources toward economics education. In the United States, organizations whose primary purpose is the advancement of economics education include the National Council on Economic Education and its worldwide network of councils and centers, the Foundation for Teaching Economics and Junior Achievement. The US National Center for Research in Economic Education is a resource for research and assessment in economics education. Among broader US organizations that devote significant resources toward economics education is the Federal Reserve System. In the United Kingdom there is The Economics Network, a government-funded national project to sup-port economics education in Higher education contexts, and the non-profit Economics & Business Education Association (EBEA) for secondary education.

Journals devoted to the topic of economics education include the Journal of Economic Education, International Review of Economics Education, Australasian Journal of Economics Education and Computers in Higher Education Economics Review.

The National Center for Research in Economic Education (NCREE) is a non-profit center located at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln in Lincoln, Nebraska, U.S.A. Its primary function is to assist researchers and other organizations with research, assessment and evaluation projects in economics education. The NCREE has designed, developed and revised widely-used standardized test instruments for assessing the economics knowledge of students at various stages of education (e.g., Basic Economics Test (BET), Test of Economic Knowledge (TEK), Test of Economic Literacy (TEL) and Test of Understanding in College Economics (TUCE)). The NCREE is home to REED, the Research in Economic Education Data Base.

The WACE logo The Western Australian Certificate of Education is the credential given to students who have completed Year 11 and Year 12 of their secondary schooling in the state of Western Australia, Australia and is intended to become the Western Australian certificate within the Australian

Certificate of Education, part of the Australian Qualifications Framework. From 2010 onwards, WACE is now also the umbrella term given to the set of final examinations that are completed by Year 12 students, replacing the TEE (Tertiary Entrance Exam).

Prerequisites as of 2010, the requirements for successful completion of WACE are: For students to achieve the WACE, they must have completed 10 full-year course units over Years 11 and 12. Achieve an average of C grade or better in at least eight of these full-year (or equivalent) subjects. At least four of these subjects must also be at Year 12 level.

Complete four English units (the equivalent of two full years study of English - Years 11 and 12 combined). Meet English competency requirements (satisfied by a final, scaled mark of 50 or more in English).

WACE Examinations in a first for Western Australia, under the WACE system as opposed to the previous TEE, it is compulsory for all students to sit the final examination for each of their subjects, unless exempt.

All remaining subjects from the predecessor to the WACE, the TEE, will be converted to the new WACE standard as of 2010. Some subjects were already under the new WACE system as early as 2005, such as 3A/3B English, 2C/2D English and Applied Information Technology.

WACE Overseas The WACE is also available overseas in South East Asia. This offers an affordable option for international students who would otherwise not have the opportunity take this exam in Australia. Exams are invigilated and moderated by the WA Curriculum Council. Several centres are available in Malaysia where the WACE curriculum is delivered.

School is compulsory in Australia between the ages of five/six-fifteen/sixteen or seventeen, depending on the state, with, in recent years, over three-quarters of people staying on until their thirteenth year in school. Government schools educate about two-thirds of Australian students, with the other third in independent schools, a proportion which is rising in many parts of Australia. economic pedagogical educational

Government schools are free although most schools charge what are known as «voluntary» contributions, while independent schools, both religious and secular, charge fees. Regardless of whether a school is government or independent, it is required to adhere to the same curriculum frameworks. Most school students, be they in government or independent school, usually wear uniforms, although there are varying expectations.

Each State and Territories has its own format of Year 12 Matriculation: ? Australian Capital Territory: ACT Year 12 Certificate; South Australia: South Australian Matriculation; Northern Territory. In Brazil, high school is officially called Ensino Mйdio (formerly Segundo Grau) and is also informally known as colegial. It is the last phase to basic education. Brazilian high school lasts 3 years, attempting to deepen what students have learned in the Ensino Fundamental. Brazilian high school students are referenced by their year - 1st, 2nd and 3rd years.

Unlike other countries, Brazilian students don't have a final test to conclude studies. Their approval depends only on their final grade on each subject. Each university elaborates its own test to select new students - this test, the vestibular, generally happens once a year. Enem, a non-mandatory national exam, evaluates high school students in Brazil and is used to rank both private and public schools.

The best scores in vestibular and in Enem and the best universities are concentrated on the

Southern region of the country, mainly in the states of Sгo Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Minas Gerais, Espнrito Santo, Rio Grande do Sul, Santa Catarina and Paranб, and in the Federal District. The lack of funds and historical and social problems contribute to poor attendance from the students, especially those in public schools.

Nevertheless, some are national models, such as the Colйgio Pedro II, named after the 19th century emperor.

Private establishments, on the other hand, may be recognized as academically excellent or merely as investments in social networking. Schedules vary from school to school. The subjects taught, however, are conceived by the Ministйrio da Educaзгo (Ministry of Education) which emphasises the hard sciences.

The educational year begins in February and finishes in December; institutions are permitted to define their own actual start and end dates. They must, however, provide at least 200 days of classes per year.

Universities are also divided into public and private. At this level, public ones are considered excellent and their vestibular exam is highly competitive (the exam for med school in UNICAMP may hit 300 candidates per place). For better preparation, therefore, many students take a curso prйvestibular (university preparation course), which is offered by large private high schools.

The Czech school system is, due to historic reasons, almost the same as the German school system. The school system is free and mandatory to age 16. After the Zбkladnн љkola (Elementary School) in age of 16, students are directed to three different optional secondary education schools:

Stшednн odbornй uиiliљtм (SOU) - designed for students going into a trade (e.g., carpentry, masonry, auto-mechanic etc.) Education is 3 years long and entrance exam free, combined with practice (one week study in school/one week practice in factory, bakery, building site... etc.), finished with a certificate.

Stшednн odbornб љkola (SOЉ) - designed for students going into a profession (accountant, technician, kindergarten teacher…) and finishes with maturita as exit exam. The leaving exam consist of 2 compulsory and 2 optional subjects. Compulsory subjects are Czech language and World Literature and one other language. Optional ones depend on the type of school (mathematics, physics, accounting, etc.) The study is 4 years long and you need to pass an entrance exam (Czech Language and Mathematics or Physics, varies with the type of school)

Gymnasium (Gym) - designed for students going to university/college and finishes with a maturita exam. Also with two mandatory subjects Czech language and World Literature and one other language.

Optional subjects vary, usually between humanistic and science. The study is 4, 6 or 8 years long. In case of 6 (8) years one, the pupils finish elementary school two (four) years earlier and this two (four) years has harder studying programme on Gymnasium. There are also entry exams to all these programmes. The maturita is required for study in University. The Abitur from Gymnasium is better for Humanistic pointed University and SOЉ Abitur is better for Technical pointed university.

In Denmark it is mandatory to receive education answering to the basic school syllabus until the 10th year of school education. Since 2009 has it been compulsory also to attend pre-school. Furthermore can pupils choose a 11th year of school. After the basic school choose the majority of pupils between ages 15-19 usually to go through the "Gymnasium", which is University-preparatory. If not attending Gymnasium, the most common alternative is attending vocational training. There are over 100 different vocational courses in Denmark.

The Finnish education system is a comparatively egalitarian Nordic system. This means for example no tuition fees for full-time students and free meals are served to pupils. There are private schools but they are made unattractive by legislation.

The second level education is not compulsory, but an overwhelming majority attends. There is a choice between upper secondary school (lukio, gymnasium) and vocational school (ammatillinen oppilaitos, yrkesinstitut). Graduates of both upper secondary school and vocational school can apply to study in further education (University and Polytechnics). Upper secondary school, unlike vocational school, concludes with a nationally graded matriculation examination (ylioppilastutkinto, studentexamen). Passing the test is a de facto prerequisite for further education. The system is designed so that approximately the lowest scoring 5% fails and also 5% get the best grade. The exam allows for a limited degree of specialization in either natural sciences or social sciences. The graduation is an important and formal family event, like christening, wedding, and funeral.

In the OECD's international assessment of student performance, PISA, Finland has consistently been among the highest scorers worldwide; in 2003, Finnish 15-year-olds came first in reading literacy, science, and mathematics; and second in problem solving, worldwide. The World Economic Forum ranks Finland's tertiary education №1 in the world.

The German school system is free and compulsory through age 18. After the Grundschule (elementary school lasting 4-6 years), teachers recommend each pupil for one of three different types of secondary education. Parents have the final say about which school their child will attend.

Hauptschule - designed for students going into trades such as cons-truction; complete after 9th or 10th grade. During apprenticeships, pupils then attend Berufsschule, a dual-education vocational high school. The Hauptschule has been subject to significant criticism, as it tends to segregate the children of immigrants with schoolmates whose German is also poor, leading to a cycle of poverty.

Realschule - designed for students who want to apprentice for white-collar jobs not requiring university studies, such as banking; complete after 10th grade. Those who change their minds and decide to attend university can proceed after testing to:

Gymnasium - academic preparatory school for pupils planning to attend universities or polytechnics. Some offer a classical education (Latin, Greek), while others concentrate on economics and the like. The curriculum leading to the Abitur degree were recently reduced from 13th grade to 12th grade ("G8," eight years of Gymnasium).

The Gesamtschule (comparable to American schools) puts all pupils in a single building, combining the three main types; these are still quite rare. Students with special needs are assigned to Fцrderschule or Son-derschule.

In India, Before The Indian Constitutional Amendment in 2002, Article 45 (Articles 36 - 51 are on Directive-Principles of State Policy) of the Constitution was- «Art.45. Provision for free and compulsory education for children. - The State shall endeavor to provide, within a period of ten years from the commencement of this Constitution, for free and compulsory education for all children until they complete the age of fourteen years».

But that Constitutional obligation was time and again deferred - first to 1970 and then to 1980,1990 and 2000. The 10th Five-Year Plan visualizes that India will achieve the Universal Elementary Education by 2007. However, the Union Human Resource Development Minister announced in 2001 that India will achieve this target only by 2010. (Ninety-third Amendment) Bill, 2002, renumbered as the Constitution (86th Amendment) Act, 2002, which was passed on 12 Dec 2002 stated: An Act further to amend the Constitution of India. Be it enacted by Parliament in the Fifty-third Year of the Republic of India as follows:

1. Short title and commencement; this act may be called the Constitution (Eighty-sixth Amendment) act, 2002; it shall come into force on such date as the Central Government may, by notification in the Official Gazette, appoint;

2. Insertion of new article 21A; after article 21 of the Constitution, the following article shall be inserted, namely Right to education - "Art.21A. The State shall provide free and compulsory education to all children of the age of six to fourteen years in such manner as the State may, by law, determine";

3. Substitution of new article for article 45; for article 45 of the Constitution, the following article shall be substituted, namely: Provision for early childhood care and education to children below the age of six years - "Art.45. The State shall endeavour to provide early childhood care and education for all children until they complete the age of six years".

4. Amendment of article 51A; in article 51A of the Constitution, after clause (J), the following clause shall be added, namely: "Art.(k) who is a parent or guardian to provide opportunities for education to his child or, as the case may be, ward between the age of six and fourteen years".

On the basis of Constitutional mandate provided in Article 41, 45, 46, 21A and various judgments of Supreme Court the Government of India has taken several steps to eradicate illiteracy, improvement the quality of education and make children back to school who left the school for one or the reasons. Some of these programmes are National Technology Mission, District Primary Education Programme, and Nutri-tion Support for Primary Education, National Open School, Mid-Day Meal

Scheme, Sarva Siksha Abhiyan and other state specific initiatives. Besides, this several states have enacted legislation to provide free and compulsory primary education such as- the Kerala Education Act 1959, the Punjab Primary Education Act 1960, the Gujarat Compulsory Prima-ry Education Act 1961, UP Basic Education Act 1972, Rajasthan Prima-ry Education Act 1964, etc.

However, the Constitution of India and Supreme Court have declared that the education is now a fundamental right of the people of India, who has a long tradition of organized education. As a historian has put it, «there is no other country where the love of learning had so early an origin or has exercised so lasting and powerful an influence».

However, educational effort in the country has come a long way from this traditional position in its definition, coverage as well as impact. The current educational system in the country operates in an altogether different context from the classical past. The country's commitment to the provision of education for all and its endeavor to achieve this goal in a speedy fashion has to be seen in this complex milieu within which the educational system is currently functioning.

As the veteran educationist Shri J.P.Naik put it: «The Indian Society, especially the Hindu Society has been extremely inegalitarian, and this (provision of equality of educational opportunity) is the one value on the basis of which the society can be humanized and strengthened. In fact, the issue is so crucial that the Indian society cannot even hope to survive except on the basis of an egalitarian reorganization». Between 1813 and 1921, the British administrators laid the foundations of the modern educational system. The principal positive contribution of the British administrators to equality was to give all citizens open access to educational institutions maintained from or supported by public funds. For instance, the worst difficulties were perhaps encountered when the problem of educating the «untouchable» castes came up.

The first test case arose in 1856 when a boy from an untouchable caste applied for admission to the government school at Dharwar. He was refused admission on the ground that it would result in the with-drawl of all the caste Hindu children from the school and thus in the closure of the school itself.

But the decision was sharply criticized by the Governor General of India as well as by the Court of Directors in the East India Company and a clear policy was laid down that no untouchable child should be refused admission to a government school even if it meant the closure of the school (Report of the Indian Education Commission, 1882).

The British administrators thus established, firmly and unequivocally, the right of every child irrespective of caste, sex or traditional taboos, to seek admission to all schools supported or aided by public funds. The British administrators refused to accept the principle of compulsory elementary education.

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