Biostratigraphy and conditions of formation of Albian and Cenomanian deposits on the south-western slope of the Ukrainian Shield (Middle Dnister region)

In general, this faunal assemblage is characteristic for the lower Cenomanian. The Mantelliceras mantelli zone is reliably distinguished by the findings of the index species and characterized by the presence of the nominal species Schloenbachia varians (Sow.) and its subspecies.

Calcareous nannoplankton. Lower Cenomanian deposits of the Middle Dnister region contain Manivitella redimiculata (Stov.), Zygodiscus diplogrammus (Defl.), Lithastrinus floralis (Str.), Biscutum constans (Gorka), Eiffellithus turriseiffeli (Defl.), Watznaubereria barnesae (Black), Cribrosphaerella ehrenbergi (Arkh.), Parhabdolithus emdergeri (Noel.), Chiastozygus amphipons (Braml. et Mart.) and others, which are characteristic for Chiastozygus amphipons zone. This calcareous nannoplankton assemblage, in general, is common for all sections of the lower Cenomanian of the Middle Dnister region. It correlates with those of the Dnipro-Donetsk Basin, Caucasus, France, USA, and the oceans.

Palaeoecology. The facies of the lower Cenomanian glauconitic-quartz sands and sandstones is characterized by gravel impurities and insignificant thickness. Sponges with a silicon skeleton (genus Triaxonida) played a significant role in sedimentogenesis. Moderate water mobility and good aeration contributed to the formation of a rich fauna (bivalves, cephalopods and brachiopods, sponges, oysters, sea urchins, and corals). Mobile benthos predominated among the fauna (76%; Atabekyan 1985). Detritophagous Turbo were numerous, and Natica was typical among zoophages. Brachiopods were non-abundant, mainly rhynchonellids and terebratulids, being represented by shell fragments. The species composition of foraminifera from these sediments is poor. Benthic foraminifera (78-84%) are represented by numerous genera (Arenobulimons, Cidicides, Gavelinella, and Plectina), and planktonic (16-22%) -- by members of the genus Hedbergella. This palaeocoenosis was buried in sediments of the coastal part of open sea at a depth of about 50 m. Shallow water is also evidenced by the lithological composition of sediments, as well as the findings of Cucullaea, Cardita, and Cyprina, occupying shallow habitats (10-80 m) of warm seas with good water aeration, mobility, and light.

There are mixed yellow-granular nodules of phosphorites in the early and middle Cenomanian sublittoral sediments of Volyn-Podillia, which were transferred from the Vendian deposits as a result of washing by later transgressing seas. Granular phosphorites were formed under calmer conditions of the sublittoral and relatively calm shallow shelf. The low seabed relief and structural-tectonic positions also contributed to the re-deposition processes.

Middle Cenomanian K,2

Lithology. Faunistically characterized middle Cenomanian deposits are widespread in the Middle Dnister region. In the second half of the Cenomanian, the basin became deeper and the character of sedimentation had also changed due to the formation of carbonate-detrital deposits. New faunal groups appeared in the sea, in particular inoceramids, whose shells later became a rockforming material for detrital limestones. Within the north-western part of the Middle Dnister region, quartz-glauconitic sands dated back to the middle Cenomanian, are replaced southward by detrital facies, with glauconite admixtures, limestones, which turn into marls and chalk near Soroky. The upper part of marls and limestones belongs to the middle Cenomanian.

The lower border of the middle Cenomanian deposits is determined by the results of the analysis of fossil fauna. In the northwest (Nova Ushytsia-Balabanivka) -- the accumulation area of sublittoral Cenomanian deposits -- it is confined to the upper part of glauconitic-quartz sands with phospha- tized fauna. In the central part (near Yarishiv), this border is in the upper part of sand marls, whereas near Ataky-Mohyliv-Podilskyi -- at the base of inoceram limestones; it is confined to the base of marls and chalk in the southeast (near Soroky).

Molluscs. Middle Cenomanian deposits of the Middle Dnister region are distinguished by the presence of Turrilites costatus Lam. (Nova Ushytsia, Yaryshiv, Tsykove), which was common in the Anglo-Paris and Polish-German basins, as well as in North Africa during the middle Cenomanian; Acanthoceras rhotomagense (Defr.) (Nova Ushytsia, Sloboda-Yaryshivska); Turrilites acutus Passy (Nova Ushytsia), which are characteristic for the upper middle Cenomanian in the south of Eastern Europe (Cunnigtoniceras inerme zone for the lower middle Cenomanian), found in the Cenomanian of Western Europe, the Caucasus, and the Fore-Caspian area (Acanthoceras rhotomagense zone of the mid-middle Cenomanian).

In addition, the first representatives of Schloenbachia coupei (Brongn.) appeared in the middle Cenomanian (Kyselevych 1991), i.e. S. coupei quadrata Spath (Nova Ushytsia, Yaryshiv, and Otach), S. coupei Mtuberculata Spath (Balabanivka and Yaryshiv), S. coupei costata (Sharpe) (Murovani Kurylivtsi), as well as S. cf. scharpei (Sem.), and S. cf. ventriosa Stiel. These taxa were widespread in the Cenomanian of Western Europe, Ukraine and, especially, in the middle Cenomanian of Turkmenistan (Mangyshlak and Tuarkir).

Calcareous nannoplankton. The middle Cenomanian age of deposits in the north-western part of the Middle Dnister region could not be confirmed by the calcareous nannoplankton, as its remains were not found in glauconitic-quartz sands near Nova Ushytsia. Further to the south, the middle Cenomanian is distinguished by the appearance of Chiastozygus anceps (Gorka), Ch. cuneatus (Lulj.), Prediscosphaera cretacea (Arkh.), etc. Middle Cenomanian sediments near Yarishiv contain the richest assemblage of coccoliths: Watznaueria barnesae (Black), Discorhabdulus ignotus (Gorka), Chiastozygus amphipons (Braml. et Mart.), Ch. cuneatus (Lulj.), Ch. litterarius (Gorka), Zygodiscus diplogrammus (Defl.), Z. bussoni (Noel.), Effellithus turriseiffeli (Defl.), Prediscosphaera cretacea (Arkh.), Lithastrinusfloralis (Str.), Microrhabdulus attenuatus (Defl.), Manivitellapemmatoidea (Defl. et Maniv.), Cretarhabdus crenulatus (Braml. et Mart.), Parhabdolithus embergeri (Noel.), and Bidiscus ignotus (Gorka) (Kyselevych et al. 1987), which are characteristic for the Chiastozygus cuneatus zone.

The middle Cenomanian calcareous nannoplankton assemblages of the Middle Dnister region are identical to those in the stratotype sections of the Anglo-Paris Basin.

Palaeoecology. The facies of the middle Cenomanian inoceram limestones of open shallow epicontinental sea basin is widespread almost throughout the Volyn-Podillia Plate and is represented by light grey marl limestones with a large number of destroyed inoceram shells. The limestones are well clayey in its lower part, with an admixture of glauconitic and quartz sand. Phosphorites are scattered throughout the section, but mostly concentrated in the lower part of the sediments. The amount of carbonates increases upward (from about 70% to 93.5%). In the western regions, inoceram limestones turn into Turonian deposits, and in the east of the Volyn-Podillia Plate (Mohyliv-Podilskyi Transnistria) they are covered with siliceous limestones. The saturation of facies deposits with faunal remains is uneven and, usually, they are less common in the upper part of the stratum, and most often occurred in its lower part.

The systematic composition of the fauna, its origin, and the degree of preservation in different areas has its own characteristics. The exception are widespread inocerams, shell prisms of which have formed entire limestone strata. The saturation of facies deposits near Sloboda-Yaryshivska is low. Together with the phosphorites, the fauna is concentrated within the layer, which is located approximately 1-1.5 m above the bottom. This fossil assemblage is an orictocoenosis, and the systematic composition of its fossil remains (407 specimens) is represented by 45 species. The most numerous are bivalve molluscs (49.4%), among which Venus (Cyprimeria) faba (Sow.), and Chlamys (Aequihecten) aspera (Lam.) predominate. The second largest group are cephalopods (39.3%) with a predominance of members of the genus Schloenbachia. Gastropods make up 6.9%, sponges €к 2.7%, serpulids -- 0.7%, brachiopods -- 0.3%, fishes and others -- 0.7%. According to the number of individuals, this faunal assemblage can be called as Cyprimerio-Schloenbachian complex. The state of preservation of faunal remains indicate that most organisms were buried at the site of their existence and phosphated, some were re-deposited and preserved both in the form of nuclei and shell fragments (even a mother- of-pearl layer preserved on nuclei of Schlenbachia). The specimens collected are weakly or almost not rolled, which indicates low hydrodynamic activity of the bottom waters of the sea basin.

Ecologically, mobile benthos is dominant (57%), in particular the percentage of remains belonging to free-floating organisms is 6.4%. This group is dominated by forms that were buried in the bottom substrate (representatives of Cyprimeria, Tapes, Natica, etc.). Sedentary benthos is 10%, and it is represented by sponges, oysters, serpulids, and rare brachiopods.

Near Rukomyshyn, Ternopil Oblast the saturation of rock with remains of organisms is uneven and almost all of them are located in the basal (0.5 m) layer, and are rare upward the section. They are represented by 67 species (460 specimens), of which 57.8% are bivalves (dominated by Opis co- quandiana Orb. and Cucullaea mailleana (Orb.)), cephalopods reached 16.7%, gastropods -- 13.8%, brachiopods -- 3.9%, sponges -- 3.6%, sea urchins -- 1.5%, scaphopods -- 1.5%, serpulids -- 0.6%, solitary corals -- 0.4%, and fishes -- 0.2%.

The nature of the burial and the degree of preservation indicate that almost the entire fauna is phosphated, washed, partially re-deposited and preserved mainly in the form of nuclei. Some species of the family Ostreidae and partially Pectenidae remained unphosphatized.

Among the ecological groups, mobile benthos reached the largest number (91.5%), with a predominance of Tracia, Cardium, Corbula, Natica, etc., which were buried in the bottom substrate. Free-floating organisms, mainly ammonites, are numerous there (16.8%). Sedentary benthos is 8.6% represented by sponges, solitary corals, serpulids, brachiopods, and oysters.

In Loshinivka, located 32 km northeast of Rukomyshyn, the number of systematic groups, in particular cephalopods, gastropods, brachiopods, etc., is greatly reduced compared to all outcrops in the southwest. At the same time, pectenids (e.g. Entolium, Chlamys) acquired a larger number. Their shells are found throughout the stratum of inoceram limestones.

The state of preservation indicates that the organisms were buried at the place, except for the basal layer complex, and to some extent represent the biocoenosis of the Middle Cenomanian sea. Pectenid shells are thin-walled, completely preserved, do not bear traces of movement and rolling, as evidenced by a thin sculpture of well-preserved shells. According to the number of individuals, this assemblage can be called a pectenid biocoenosis.

Some differences are observed when comparing the systematic and ecological groups of the fauna of the western and eastern parts of inoceram limestones. In the western part, the percentage of sedentary benthos is larger. In the Rukomyshyn Raion, it is represented by five systematic groups. In the eastern regions, the distribution of inoceram limestones is greatly reduced and, for example, in Sloboda-Yaryshivska only one Terebratula was found among more than 400 specimens. Solitary corals are also almost absent in the eastern areas. Cucullaea mailleana (Orb.) and Opis coquandiana Orb. reached a larger number in Ternopil Transnistria, while in Vinnytsia Transnistria the first species is represented only by several specimens, and the second one is absent. On the contrary, Venus (Cyprimeria) faba (Sow.) is numerous in the east, while rare in the west, and Trigonarca orbignyana (Math.) is completely absent there.

These differences can be explained by the difficult connections of shallow waters, and possibly by the isolation (at certain stages of development) of these parts of the Middle Cenomanian sea dissected by islands or capes. This is also confirmed by the fact that currently in large areas between the mentioned areas (Khmelnytskyi Transnistria) there are no inoceram limestones. Their small thickness could be probably blurred by younger marine transgressions.

Based on the lithological composition of rocks and the remains of organisms, we suggest that the sediments of this facies were formed at the beginning of the middle Cenomanian in a shallow open sea basin, in which the terrigenous material was demolished from the adjacent land parts of the Ukrainian Shield, and, probably, from small islands within the basin.

The bottom clear waters were relatively well warmed, enriched with oxygen and organic detritus, which contributed to the good development of the fauna. Later (approximately in the mid-middle Cenomanian), the transgression intensified, the sea basin deepened, as evidenced by the gradual decrease of the amount of terrigenous material entering the sea basin. It led to changes in bottom waters, which adversely affected the further development of the existing biocoenosis. There was a gradual extinction of entire faunal groups.

Almost complete phosphatization of the early-middle Cenomanian fauna is an evidence for the great role of the Carpathian upwelling at that time -- the inflow of cold waters with dissolved phosphorus, silicon, nitrogen and other nutrients from the depths of the ocean. Geochemically active phosphorus is concentrated on the sea (ocean) shelf due to changes in salinity, temperature, pH, C©–2 content and other physicochemical parameters of the aquatic environment, which were characteristic for this region of Volyn-Podillia. In addition, upwelling is also interpreted as a rise of deep waters, enriched with gases; redistribution of exogenous mineralised water masses by sea currents over long distances; the appearance of redoxycline zones (favourable environment for sorption and desorption of elements). It is possible that the identified patterns took place in this region during the mass phos- phatization of the early-middle Cenomanian organic remains with the preservation of details of the structure of their solid exoskeletons.

Upper Cenomanian

Lithology. The presence of upper Cenomanian deposits in the Middle Dnister region was established only in the Mohyliv-Podilskyi-Otach region (Republic of Moldova). This time was characterized by transgression increase with the formation of carbonate-clay sediments. Based on the lithological composition and organic remains (Gavelinella cenomanica (Brotz.), Lingulogavelinella globosa (Brotz.), Gavelinella vesca Vass., Brotzenella berthelini (Kell.), and Amphidonta sp.), the sea basin had normal salinity and optimal hydrodynamic regime.

Calcareous nannoplankton. A rather rich calcareous nannoplankton assemblage was identified by G. P. Kalinichenko from the deposits of this age (Kyselevych et al. 1987): Watznaueria barnesae (Black), Eiffellithus turriseiffeli (Defl.), Cribrosphaerella ehrenbergi (Arkh.), Biscutum con- stans (Gorka), Lithastrinus floralis (Str.), Cretarhabdus coronodventis (Reinh.), Vagalapilla elliptica (Reinh.), Zygodiscus diplogrammus (Defl.), Z. variatus (Carat.), Chiastozygus litterarius (Gorka), Ch. anceps (Gorka), Manivitella pemmatoidea (Defl. et Maniv.), Parhabdolithus embergeri (Noel.), Microrhabdulus aff. decoratus (Defl.), etc.

Palaeoecology. Macrofauna is very scarce in these sediments, being represented by Praeactino- camax plenus Blainville known from Murovani Kurylivtsi (Naidin 1952; Maryash & Kozlovsky 2019) and inoceram molluscs (Pasternak et al. 1968). The upper Cenomanian formations are well distinguished by calcareous nannoplankton (Kyselevych et al. 1987), the composition of which is closer to associations known from the same age in the Tethys and adjacent regions. The upper part of the Cenomanian section in the Middle Dnister region has a reduced carbonate and an increased silica content. It is possible that this is due to underwater and surface volcanism in the Steppe Crimea (Kyselevych 1999), the maximum of which was manifested in the middle and early late Albian. The increased content of silica of volcanic origin in the epicontinental sea basin promoted the development of organisms with siliceous skeleton. North-western sea currents promoted their migration and supplied increased portions of silica first to the Black Sea coast, where the upper Albian and lower Cenomanian spongioliths and gaizes were formed, and then to the Middle Dnister region with the accumulation of sillicites. The waters of the Carpathian upwelling could also have a significant impact on this process.

C l i mate . Data on the Cenomanian climate and the entire Late Cretaceous cycle of geological development of Ukraine are insufficient, because palaeovegetation, which could provide relevant information, is almost not preserved and practically not studied in Ukraine.

According to Krassilov (1985) and Vakhrameev (1988), during the Late Cretaceous Ukraine was a part of the European subtropical region and experienced fluctuations in temperature and humidity, which could be caused by transgressive and regressive phases of palaeobasin development. In the late Albian-Cenomanian, at least during the first half of this phase, the climate in the territory of modern Ukraine was warm and humid, as evidenced by the spread of terrigenous-glauconitic facies with phosphorites and by the presence of volcanic ash (Kyselevych 1999) indicating volcanic activity and possible greenhouse effect.

The water temperature in sea basins of that age in the Crimea was about 20°C (Yasamanov 1978). According to Krassilov (1985), there was a slight cooling during the late Albian and early Cenomanian compared to pre-Albian times and the middle Cenomanian, which is evidenced by the absence of thermophilous cycadophytes among the floristic remains.

The results of the study of the late Albian and Cenomanian marine fauna allow to suggest that the climate in the south and north of Ukraine was slightly different being typical subtropical in the Black Sea region and in the Crimea, while moderately warm and arid in the Dnipro-Donets Basin, northern slopes of Donbas and Volyn-Podillia, as evidenced by a mixture of cold- and warm water faunal elements, and the mineral composition of autogenic formations.

Due to a detailed comprehensive study of Cretaceous macro- and microfauna, its facies distribution, quantitative analysis, and paleoecological conditions, it is possible to trace slight differences between close homogeneous conditions of sedimentation within the relatively homogeneous sea basin of the Middle Dnister region on the verge of the Early and Late Cretaceous. It was found that this shallow epicontinental sea was characterized by normal salinity and well-aerated warm waters (+17 °С...+20 °С) with temporary strong bottom currents within shallow water and with maximum depths up to 150-200 m (average 10-80 m) in some areas and soft muddy bottom of deep-water areas.

palaeoshelf clay-carbonate sedimen

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