Features of French Nationalism under Napoleon III

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Features of French Nationalism under Napoleon III

National ideology plays a major role in the process of foreign policy formation of and the domestic direction of the development of a state. Despite the fact that without a strong social and ethnic cohesion measured by national identity d'etat (French lang. - state) simply cannot exist; the concept of nationalism was ignored for many centuries in the history of the political philosophy (Nationalism, 2010, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy). Notwithstanding the claim that the phenomenon of nationalism or “sense of identity with nation” is relatively modern, there are multiple varieties of its explanation and classifications.

Initially, Classical Nationalism was considered as the self-determination approach of a country seeking for societal sustainability and political stability. This political attitude represents a specific form of the nation-state sovereignty (Nielsen, 1999), where all members of a single ethno-national group have to pursue general goals and strategies of that particular society. In other words, the representatives of the nation-state should preserve their nationhood interests in all possible ways. For example, in economy this influence could be viewed in terms of purchasing domestic goods predominantly (Miscevic, 2000). Meanwhile, in political sphere it emerges as the protection of national concerns. Hence, from my perspective Classical Nationalism provides valid theoretical background for the Realist type of ideology in the international politics.

According to Pyle (p.1, 2006), there is nothing natural in the appearance of nationalism because it is created and promoted by different political leaders. Thus, by the means of the political initiative state is experiencing a phenomenon of the shaping national identity. Usually nationalism derives from the “historically embedded values”, such as traditions, cultural rituals, language, proverb sayings and etc. (Kedourie, E. as sited in Nationalism in East Asia). Those national values implies in the formation of national ideology with regard to the maintenance of societal cohesion and justification or legitimization of existing government. Thus, in the Pyle's conception nationalism is unstable element which differs with respect to political and ideological manipulation activities. The expectance of this definition is fully justified especially analyzing European ruling elite of the XIX century. In this paper, would presented the vivacious sample of the French national ideology created by the Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte during his reign.

Another definition of the nationalist concept is presented in the form of autonomous, patriotic sentiments with a belief in expansionism (Handler, n.d.). This extreme radical vision of nationalism is characterized by the extended claims of the state to expand its territory on the pretext of national glory or previous historical possessions of some territorial domain of other state. Also, expansionalist nationalism involves militaristic actions and territorial integrity destruction of another nation-state. With regard to the late XIX century these factors were quite common as a result of the absence of the international legal court establishment and ambitious plans of the great powers, like Great Britain, France and Tsarist Russia.

Subsequently, in order to observe the theme “Foreign policy formation and French nationalism under Napoleon III”, it is essentially valuable to consider the notion of nationalism from various prospectives and analyze different definitions of the national identity phenomena.

Historical background of the French Nationalism

French Nationalism appeared in the early XIX century, namely since 1804 with the establishment of the French Empire under self-proclaimed emperor Napoleon Bonaparte and further shaped and renewed by his nephew Louis Napoleon Bonaparte or Napoleon III. Thus, focusing particularly on those two great reigns' periods in the history of France, the roots of the national French Nationalism would be considered.

Starting with the external active involvement of France since the creation of the First French Empire, the formation of national ideology in France begins. It has started with domestic reforms which were intended on the administrative centralization of power (History of France, n.d.). When internal reformation was over, France obtained wide range of tools and capabilities to strengthen its regional importance. Consequently, successful French military campaigns of France in Algeria, Crimean War, colonization of South-East Asia and coalitions before 1812, namely invasion of Russia, contributed to the creation of the strong French national consciousness and upgrade of international status of France in the eyes of other growing powers (French Nationalism, n.d.). Pro-nationalistic sentiments were driven by the desire of French independent nation to gain dominance and prestige in the Europe and in the entire world. Referring to the typologies of nationalism, described in the previous chapter of this essay, this category of nationalism is called expansionalist nationalism. Nevertheless, Napoleon I final crushing defeat in the Waterloo Battle of 1815, has dramatically affected French National pride values and Nationalism itself respectively.

Then, followed the “era of mass frustration and degradation” in the French society because of the economic failures in the country and political instability, the need for radical changes in state building system arose (History of France, n.d.). As a result of this situation, the June revolution broke out in 1848 and the Second French Republic was established, the head of the State and of the Government became Lois-Napoleon Bonaparte. After gaining enough strength among political and economic elite circles Lois-Napoleon attempted to modify political regime in France and initiated a coup d'etat in 1851 which consequently change the power to imperial ruling (Tocqueville, n.d.). In the article “Republic in danger” (n.d.) author makes an emphasis that the Second Empire of France is viewed by many historians as “Liberal empire” for different reasons (i.e. commercial treaties with the Great Britain, revival of parliamentary institutions and capital investments in other states). Hence, the introduction of capital economy greatly renewed the essence of French Nationalist strategies.

As far as French economy experienced modernization and industrialization during Napoleon III, new waves of nationalism were added to the general conception of ideology. Basically, economic interests and foreign markets for exporting goods and importing materials, contributed liberal features in it. Moreover, France again reached the status of the Great Power and started to play active role in the International Affairs of the middle and late XIX century (N.B. The events connected with French expansionalist foreign policy are described in the m). Nonetheless, the type of colonial direct administration remained the same. At the mean time working class was growing powerful class in the French society. So, while Mexican campaign (1862-1867) faced the first difficulties and budget spending deficit on overseas Napoleon's plans in American continent, working class began to oppose and question the legitimacy of the authority (French Nationalism, n.d.). Briefly, the French Nationalism under Napoleon the III was predominantly expansionalist with the element of liberal economic features.

Overall, regarding the formation of French Nationalism, it derives from the centralization of administrative power under Napoleon I and expansionalist foreign politics of France during the First and the Second French Empires. In addition, a liberal economic approach represents a slight difference in national ideology shaped by Napoleon III in comparison with the previous version of French Nationalism.

After being nominated to the post of the Emperor Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte, he immediately started to exert his power in the sphere of foreign policy. Being confident in his power he began to prepare to the process of conducting wars, hoping to make people of France less angry with upheaval in 1951. In Napoleon's famous speech at French city Bordeaux in 1852, he strongly suggested that "The Empire means peace", claiming to another nation-states that the new Emperor Napoleon is not going to attack other European major powers merely to expand the French Empire territories (Kennedy, 1987). He also suggested that he is not going to come up with the case of attacking their neighbors. He was also a partisan of a "policy of nationalities" re-marking the map of Europe, eliminating small principalities to create unified nation-states, even if there was a little material interests to France (Holt, Rinehart & Winston, n.d). These factors led Napoleon to a certain adventurism in foreign policy, although this was reflection of concrete pragmatism.

Mainly because in the matter of eastern question the interests of the Russia were colliding with the interests and ambitions of Britain and Austria, Napoleon III could confidently rely on the creation of anti-Russian coalition. Thus, pursuing the aim of shifting and replacing Russia from their positions in the Near East and to strengthen his superiority in Turkey, the France was engaged by the direct laying of Great Britain.

Strongly motivated and inspired by nationalism of his ancestor, he was thinking about the restoration of the greatness of the French Empire as it was in times of Napoleon Bonaparte. His major step of his foreign policy in the direction of East and Ottoman Empire was made through Crimean War of 1853 - 1856. Thus, in 1853 the Metternich system that was initially created to control and mediate conflicts and restore gaps between major great powers of Europe, fell apart with the sudden outbreak of the Crimean War (Kissinger, 1994). That was the first time since the 1815 Vienna Congress, when the major European powers were at war with each other, Britain and France supporting the Ottoman Empire against Russia.

Ottoman Empire with an offer to act as protector of Christians within the Ottoman lands. Additionally, the Roman Catholic Church sought to act as custodians of the sacred places in the Holy Land of Palestine. Nicholas I was insulted, considering himself as the protector of Orthodox Christians and demanded that the Holy Land sites must be served by Orthodox priests. This “quarrel of monks” led to a break in relations between Russia and the Ottoman Empire (Palmer, 1992). But other claim that the motive was long standing Russian aim to control Constantinople and the Dardanelles. Also, others highlight Napoleon III's desire to break out of European isolation and possibly destroy the Holy Alliance (Kissinger, 1994).

The Crimean War was a huge success for eastern foreign policy direction of France under Napoleon III. The war resulted in humiliating defeat of Russia. That was a win of nationalistic ideas in the creation of foreign policy. The Crimean war effectively ended the Concert of Europe and the Quadruple Alliance (Streich, 2007). The Paris Peace Conference of 1856 represented a high-water mark for the regime in foreign affairs of France. Peace negotiations began in 1856 under Alexander II through the Congress of Paris. Moreover, the Tsar and the Sultan agreed not to establish any naval or military arsenal on the Black Sea coast. The Black Sea points in the charter were a big disadvantage to Russia, because they had to diminished the naval threat that it posed to the Ottomans. After all the Great Powers pledged to respect the independence and territorial integrity of the Ottoman Empire. The Treaty of Paris stood until 1871, when France was defeated by Prussia in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871.

So, as for the Eastern foreign policy direction dictated by nationalistic ideas after French Revolution had a major impact in the strengthening of France position in the world affairs and maintaining a leading position in Europe.

A) Far East Direction

Attempts of Napoleon III to expand the territories of the French Empire and thus finally to establish the Second French Empire was also looked to the Asian side. Nationalism of the Napoleon III was associated with the ambitions global dominance. As his wise famous ancestor Napoleon Bonaparte once said that the Asia is a “sleeping dragon” who would be empowered after some expiry of time. And to not allow waking up of the dragon and thus not allowing to undermine their supremacy they decided to expand overseas. Because an important factor in his decision was the belief that France risked becoming a second-rate power by not expanding its influence in South-East Asia. Political motives for this overseas penetration varied from the search for markets, raw materials, investments, and cheap labor to the drive for glory, prestige, strategic advantage, and manpower (Harvey, 2000). Also there was a motive to expand the sphere of influence of Roman Catholic Church and to spread the French culture. Along with other European powers, France revived the post-1870 wave of new imperialism. By 1914, France had possessed an empire consisting of more than 10,000,000 square kilometers (4,000,000 square miles) and 60 million people (Harvey, 2000). In Southeast Asia the French combined together the colony of Indochina by 1893, adding Laos, Cambodia (now Democratic republic of Kampuchea), Annam, and Tonkin to Cochin China (the southernmost part of modern Vietnam including Saigon) in 1867 and 1874, as well as a protectorate over Cambodia in 1863. Additionally, France had a sphere of influence during the 19th century and early 20th century in southern China, including a naval base at Guangzhou Bay (Andrew & Kanya-Forstner,1981).

Initially, Napoleon III took the steps to establish a colonial French Empire and exert its influence in Indochina. In 1858 he launched a campaign to Vietnam for punishing them for their mistreatment of French Catholic missionaries. The invasion to Vietnam lead to allowance to free passage of French warships to Cambodia that eventually led to a French protectorate over Cambodia in 1863.

In China, France took part in the Second Opium War together with the United Kingdom, and in 1860 French troops entered Beijing. China was forced to give more trading rights, allow freedom of navigation of the Yangtze, give full civil rights and freedom of religion to Christians, and to release France and Britain from financial liabilities for the damages. .

The years of 1867-1668 is known as the French military mission in Japan. They leaved this country in 1866. There was another mission to Japan in 1977 that played a major key role role in modernizing the troops of the Shogun Tokugawa Yoshinobu, and even participated on his side against Imperial troops during the Boshin war. At the same year, French Royal Navy attacked Korea in Korean Peninsula in response to the mistreatment of the French missionaries and their execution. Though the campaign against Korea was primarily the work of the ranking French diplomat in China and not formally authorized by the French government, its failure nevertheless resulted in the decline of French influence in the region. french nationalism napoleon policy

Thus, the policy of Napoleon III in the Far East was to some extent successful that was a major factor of his popularity inside the country. His ambitions and appetites in Far East was challenged by Great Britain. The establishment of the Second Colonial Empire was dictated by nationalist and imperialist factors. The region of Far East was extremely important for French and for Napoleon especially because it was a stabilizer and guarantee of their dominance in the world and counterbalance to Britain's appearing hegemonic positions. Napoleon III also acted on behalf of Roman Catholic Church that was also the driver of their expansionist foreign policy. As for material side of matter, the ongoing in that time rapid industrialization in France was hungry for resources both natural and human. We also see that Napoleon III nationalistic ambitions were to a great extent helpful for France leadership in Europe.

B) Prussian Conflict and the Collapse of the Second French Empire

The significance of Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871 is remarkably huge because of the spector of its great changes in the political arena of the continental Europe in the XIX century. The major outcomes of the conflict necessary to be mentioned - the Unification of Germany under Prussian Leadership (Bismarck - cansler of Prussia), Collapse of the Second French Empire (under the Napoleon the III), end of the French hegemony in Europe.

In order to deeply comprehend the nature of Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871, the interests of both competing parties have to be considered. Foreign policy achievements of France were weakened as a result of an unsuccessful Mexican campaign of 1867 (History of France, n.d.). Hence, Lois-Napoleon Bonaparte needed to undertake this disastrous campaign for the upgrading French Imperial status and oppose rising power of Prussia. However, at the very beginning of the annexation of Austria in 1866 during only six weeks by Prussia, France was not attempted to be involved into this conflict (Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871, n.d.). The explanation of such behavior from the French site is simple - France was closely engaged with the problems of colonial web system sustainability and American project of Napoleon the III. Another reason, for almost silent behavior of France in 1866 is its false attitude towards military capacities of Prussia. Subsequently, these fatal mistakes negatively influenced the position of France in this war.

According to Abrams Lynn (n.d.), Prussia always possessed advanced military potential which was realized only with a severe political leadership in that country. Otto von Bismarck deliberately prepared the sequence of actions aimed to the final unification of German nation. For the achievement of that goal many effectives tools were used: rail-ways capacities for weaponry transportation, quantitative superiority of artillery and military staff, beforehand planned tactics and strategies (Bismarck and German Empire 1871-1918, n.d.). Thus, after the battle of Sedan in 1870 the outcomes of theFranco-Prussian conflict were predictable. One of the important results of this battle came to the creation of the Third French Republic and exile of Napoleon III.

Finally, The Treaty of Frankfurt was reached between combating parties in the May, 1871. According to this treaty Alsace and Lorraine were annexed to Germany, plus France was obliged to pay reparations (Abrams, n.d.).

To sum up, Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871 demolished the presence of French political domination in the European Affairs for several decades, before the First World War and contributed to the completing process of the Unified Germany formation.

Implications of French nationalism on foreign policy course

Napoleons III was/is a very prominent figure in the history of the France. Napoleon III was at head of the Second Empire of France from 1852 until 1870. During his time of ruling, he made many attempts to change and reshape French economic life by promoting trade and industrialization. In 1848Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, the nephew of famous uncle Napoleon I, became the first elected president of the Second Republic, just after some time after the revolution of 1848. His mythic name helped him to overwhelm his opponents. He sought the ways of keeping his throne and quickly found support among the army, the Catholic Church, and the bourgeoisie. But in 1851 a crisis spread when monarchist forces made many impediments to in order not to see him in the second term. But this event was not successful because in 1851 Napoleon III made a coup d'etat. He declared universal suffrage for all adult men. Napoleon's time of ruling was known for giving to individuals their civil liberties and launched of many social programs to enhance French people life and culture. He censored the press, controlled the legislature, and prohibited political opposition. At the same time, he implemented social welfare programs and public works initiatives (Holt, Rinehart & Winston, n.d). Napoleon attempted to improve the industrial and economic development of France and dreamed to expand France's overseas empire. These factors mainly helped to Napoleon III to maintain social cohesion in France and receive support from the side of country communities. Also, this was a great leap forward for the strengthening of nationalistic senses within a country. Due to the strict control county's orders and loyalty and happiness of people he could easily mobilize all adult men to go to fight in war against enemies.

After opening country's market for free trade and allowing the free move of British goods to France. This flood of cheap British goods created a huge instability in the France and undermined their economy that was an extremely important in the foreign policy realization. This factor was essential merely because without their economic strength endangered their global position.

The second factor that served as an implication for foreign expansion was a critique for his foreign policy as the formation of a united Italy and a united Germany threatened France's dominant position on the continent. France's humiliating defeat in the Franco-Prussian war of 1870 finally ended the Second Empire.

So, as it could be observed Napoleon III had made plenty of significant steps for inspiring nationalistic sentiments of French people; his active foreign policy involvement provided the great contribution in the process of realization of imperialistic projects overseas. Probably, it can be a wrong opinion, but it might be concluded that nationalism was not and implication for the external affairs realization, but on the contrary it represents a specific type of assistance.

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