The Viking Invaders in the VIII-XI th. centuries

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INTRODUCTION

The theme of the course paper is "The Viking Invaders in the 8-11th centuries." These times, are characterized in Scandinavia (it Sweden, Norway, Denmark) as "The Viking Age." We are interested in this period of life of medieval Europe due to the fact that general opinion about the Vikings mainly negative. People know about them as cruel killers and invaders who robbed the European population in those days. All European chronicles of that time, spoke with horror about the threat from the north.

But the Normans had their own unique culture, mythology and pagan religion. A lot of trade links with European counties are known which are confirmed by archaeological data. So we could not treat early medieval Scandinavia only as pirates and conquerors of the European population.

The purpose of this course paper is to study about the Vikings, their culture and history.

The tasks of the course paper are:

1) to learn about geographical location and natural conditions;

2) to study public relations and living standards in Scandinavian society;

3) to get to know the Appearance of the Vikings;

4) to understand the Norse culture.

The Vikings raids and captures of the cities are very popular themes among historians. But the topic of the culture and everyday life of the Vikings rarely brings up. Thus we would like to pay attention these aspects.

CHAPTER 1. THE HISTORY OF THE VIKINGS IN SCANDINAVIA

1.1 Geographical location and natural conditions

The native land of the Vikings was Scandinavia, i.e. Denmark, Norway and Sweden, political land consolidations. The Scandinavian Peninsula, stretched 2000 kilometers is the largest in Europe.

The region which is Norway now is 1800 km in a straight line from the southwest to the northeast. Most of this territory is occupied by a flat mountain plateau over thousand meters high. Highland areas are covered by snow and ice. Lands which are suitable for agriculture are mostly situated along the rivers and these pieces of lands are very small. The climate is very soft there because of the winds from the West and the Gulf Stream and Norwegian harbor is open for navigation all year round. There is still rich fauna wildlife and the sea is rich with fish. Among the natural resources of the Viking Age in Norway there are large reserves of iron and timber. Norway borders with Sweden, and in the Viking Age a small piece of this territory bordered with Denmark.

Sweden is another Scandinavian country. It is 1,600 miles in length in a straight line from the southwest to the northeast, and about 500 kilometers in width. The territory of Sweden is inhomogeneous. The great mountain range stretches along the Norwegian border to Central Sweden in the North. There are vast fertile fields around large lakes Mдlaren, Vдnern and Vдttern. Whereas the territory of the highlands of Southern Sweden completely infertile and in ancient times it was almost impassable due to numerous lakes and marshes and boundless forests. There are many skerries and islands: the largest of which are the islands of Цland and Gotland in the Baltic Sea. The climate in Sweden is very changeable. Southern Sweden has a temperate maritime climate and in Northern Sweden there are very cold winters with lots of snow and ice. Today more than half of the territory is covered by forests of Sweden. As in Norway, in Sweden there are rich reserves of iron and plenty of wood. In addition, in Sweden and particularly in its northern part, in the era of the Vikings there were plenty of opportunities for hunting and there were a lot of fish in the sea. The main part of Sweden faced the East and felt the influence of this region. But it also had connections with the West (from the Baltic Sea) and Denmark.

Compared with Norway and Sweden, Denmark is a small country. Its length in a straight line from Skagen in the north to the southern border at Eider is about 375 kilometers. Denmark is basically lowland. In the Viking Age the Danish kingdom included Jutland as well as the regions of Skеne and Halland which are belonging to Sweden now. The climate of Denmark is also changeable. Despite the fact that Denmark is in the zone of deciduous forests, in the Viking Age hunting had the secondary importance because the population here dealt mainly with agriculture. Like everywhere else in Scandinavia the sea was rich with fish. But timber reserves were less numerous than in other parts of Scandinavia. In the Viking Age intensive consumption of oak timber has led to the impoverishment of forests. During the Viking Age Denmark, as now, was the gateway to Scandinavia. Its political and cultural relations with the neighboring countries were much more intensive than relations of Norway and Sweden. [3]

The extensiveness of the territory and natural diversity of Scandinavia caused the differences in the means of getting food, as well as many other conditions. As a consequence, development of each region went its own way. And yet Scandinavia, despite the many differences, was mainly separate cultural region that can be explained according to its geographical position and natural resources. It was and is the Northernmost region of Western Europe. Scandinavia was equally far from the political and cultural center located in the South. In general, Scandinavia had almost all the most important natural resources that helped to set up a rapprochement with other nations. Scandinavian languages ??have much in common, so it was possible to understand religion, rituals and architecture of each other because each region had its own cultural peculiarities. For people from the European continent the differences between the Scandinavians were unnoticeable and until the second half of the 10th century or even later they were perceived as a separate nation. Scandinavians lived in natural environment which determined not only their form of economic activity, but also the character of settlements. In the mountainous areas of Norway and Sweden hamlet settlements dominated. They consisted of separate houses or groups of houses. Often hamlets had a large distance between each other. With a population growth hamlets transformed into small villages. Extensive areas in the mountainous part of Scandinavia remained unpopulated and used only for hunting. Even nowadays Norway has the lowest population density in Europe apart from Iceland. In the lowlands of Mid-Sweden and Denmark the population is denser. Economy and culture developed quicker there, laying the preconditions for the emergence of states.

Scandinavians during many generations got used to the poverty of land and the generosity of the ocean. They were taught how to deal with oars and boats, to do different works on the ship since childhood. Shipbuilding reached perfection: the ships were amazingly beautiful, big and fast and no storm hurt them. Scandinavians were not afraid of the sea and they often trusted it more than ground. The catches of fish, whales, seals and other things that were in the sea Normans called “Marine harvest”. Sometimes during the lean years cows and pigs were fed with cod heads and it was the only way for them to survive till new grass. People themselves ate fish almost every day. They preferred boiled, smoked, fried, salted and even sauerkraut fish with barley bread, porridge or just solo. It happened during the famine years of cows and pigs fed cod heads, and the only way to hold out the cattle of new grass. Themselves as people ate fish almost every day - boiled, smoked, fried, salted, cured, even sauerkraut - with barley bread, porridge, just like that. Scientists believe that there are so many blondes among Scandinavians because of "fish diet" which lasted for many centuries. [2]

The sea and the ship were like a real home for the Scandinavians. So if they had a poor harvest during several years they fitted out a ship and went to the voyage to look for a better life. Of course, not all the people did like that, but only the most active and such brave who had nothing to lose. They mostly traded peacefully (but always were ready to stand up for themselves) and sometimes went to explore unknown seas, discover new lands. [5]

1.2 Public relations and living standards in Scandinavian society

By the beginning of the Viking Age in Scandinavia cities and large settlements only began to appear. The Nordic people rarely settled in villages because it is required extensive forest lands for hunting "per capita" not to die from hunger. The name "hamlet" fits accurately for the Old Norse settlements. As a rule, it was only one big house in the sea shore surrounded by outbuildings and sheds for boats and ships. Only one family lived in the house. In ancient times all generations of the family lived under one roof and somewhere nearby there was a family cemetery. Children were born in larger quantities than now. In the Viking Age the rich and wealthy man could take to his house as many wives as he could feed. In this house four or five brothers and their wives, children, parents, grandparents, uncles, aunts, cousins??, second cousins ??relatives could live all together. Ethnographers call this phenomena "a big family".

Everyone who lived in a big family considered himself primarily as a member of the tribe. He could remember his ancestors for several centuries ago and tell about each of them in details. And he knew that children will remember him too when the centuries would pass. When the person met somebody he knew that he would be treated as his family deserves. On the other had, he himself also felt responsibility for the whole extended family.

In ancient times clothes said a lot about a person and had many details. From them you could learn about their owner, for example, from what tribe he is, if he married or not, if he is younger or older son and many other particularities.

In large families there were no forgotten children or old people. If someone had troubles he could rely even on the most distant relative. In Ancient Scandinavia sometimes a person could win the case in the court if he brought more relatives than the opposite side. Such kind of society where the family is the most important thing is scientifically called traditional society. These views, concepts, ideas, customs set up for ages and helped people to survive. Traditional society doesn't recognize individualism. [5]

At the head of the family groups were The Elders, tribes headed by “Kings” and warlords who had great authority during the war. Leaders of tribes and tribal alliances were chosen only from the tribe or family members. These "kings", earls and hersirs (hersir - leader, comes from the Old Norse “herr” - the army, the people) are mentioned in the songs of skalds (the earliest of which are known from the 9th century) and in the runic inscriptions from the era of “Great Migration”. The leader (hersir) was surrounded by his guards which included young people who searched for booty and glory. The guards brought an oath of loyalty to the leader and if they violate it, they would be disgraced. The warriors received sword and other weapons, a horse and share in booty and considered him their master. If the leader died in the battle and the warriors returned without him, it was a sign of cowardice which considered being the most shameful thing. The warriors had to protect the leader, serve him and fall in battle with him. They lived together in the estate and served there too. Some of them were Swains. They were squires and servants obliged to stand at the table when the leader and his companions were feasting and serve them food and drink. Power of the leaders over their vigilantes was extremely strong. They owned large land and belonged to the top of the Scandinavian society. The most ambitious of these leaders dreamed of a royal crown. They could succeed through saving a huge amount of silver or recruiting a large army to expand their sphere of influence. Anyway, in order to achieve their goals the leaders had to take risks. That's why the real Vikings were men from the top of the Scandinavian society. For them to be "the Viking" meant to travel to distant lands with their, perform heroic deeds and return home in triumph and with rich trophies. Trophies could also be gifted which helped them to win round new companions among the young people. Carols, or free peasants, were a step lower on the social ladder who worked for large landowners and sometimes owned their own pieces of land. Artisans, fishermen, shipbuilders, small traders and vigilantes have been unable to achieve the fame and wealth in distant overseas expeditions and who were not destined to inherit family property, as they were the second or third sons of the family of the landowner belonged to the same class. Actually, we know a little about the social status of artisans: blacksmiths, shipbuilders, rune carvers and skalds enjoyed the great honor and lived in prosperity because of their skills.

The lowest class of the Scandinavian society consisted of slaves or serfs. Captives, bankrupt Scandinavians, the sons and daughters of slaves could become slaves. They performed the dirtiest manual work on farms of their owners. Serfs were sold and bought as any movable property. But their life was not hopeless. In some cases, even a slave could gain freedom through hard work. Some slaves who gained their freedom could get a small piece of land as a reward for their work, but in most of cases, they became free landless people and had to be hired in the service. [2]

The Vikings had no prisons, so the only way to set the punishment was mulcts or judgments which made the criminals outlaws exiles from society. However, as an outlaw, anyone was free to kill you without risk of criminal prosecution. They had a special gathering called “The thing” and it was like our “Veche”.

The Thing was a common meeting at which laws were confirmed, conflicts solved and judgments awarded. It had legislative and judiciary powers, and was the highest available court level. The Thing system also was the basic political mechanism in Norwegian society and functioned as a stabilizing element in a society in which the kings might have a widely dissimilar political ideology. It was at the Thing, after the Norse tradition, that people elected their king. [8]

There are reasons to believe that the Thing-system had existed in Norway from the 6th century, and maybe even prior to that. However, the Thing-system was continually under revision. Therefore, we need to look at the Thing-system as a dynamic apparatus, as it continually adjusted itself to the dissimilar leaders which reigned over the ages. [11]

Harald Finehair challenged the Thing-system with his ambition to be a monarchical king, but his empire was cut short before any serious damage was done to the Thing-system. His son, Hеkon the Good, revitalized the function of the Thing-system and even advanced the system by creating The Gula-Thing, a larger, more comprehensive version of the Thing. He also initiated a tendency toward development of a Thing whose members were popularly elected and who represented society. [11]

Every free man had a duty to meet at the Things common-meetings, except men who farmed alone and could not leave their farm unattended. However, at the Murder-Thing, the King-Thing and the Census-Thing, everybody had a duty to meet. Women and handicapped people could meet at the Thing as well. [2]

The Vikings had no written laws. However, a man referred to as a «lovsigemann» - in English this means "law reader man" - opened the Thing by reading the laws, which he had memorized by heart. This was done to ensure that no one had changed the laws. Every free man had to respect the law, including chieftains and the king. The Thing was a democratic constitution and these common-meetings might last several days. Therefore, the Thing was also an occasion for a large marketplace at which the Vikings exchanged news and products. The Thing place had no buildings and the arrangement was held outdoors. Visitors could bring tents with them. [5]

Disputes were most often reached as a settlement between families. They met at a settlement-meeting where the two families each stated their case. If they didn't reach an agreement they brought the dispute to the Thing. The result of an agreement or a passed sentence at the Thing was most often a financial compensation.

Another way to settle a dispute was by «holmgang», which was somewhat like a duel between two individuals. The two warriors would meet, with sword and shield, and have a fight of life and death. [8]

Norse traders (and raiders) traveled extensively throughout the known world, bringing back to the Norse lands a wide variety of trade goods. The capacity of Norse era cargo ships made it possible to trade not only in high value luxury items (such as silks and spices from the Far East), but also in more bulky, prosaic, everyday items.

Most of the trading was over short distances, to and from dozens of ports around the Scandinavian coasts. But a smaller number of international trading centers grew, attracting merchants from throughout Europe, the Arab states, and even Asia. The map1 shows some of the major Norse trade routes, as well as a few of the important Norse trading centers, settlements, and navigational points.

Towns typically appeared along the main trading routes early in the Norse era. They were centers of transshipment, exchange, and redistribution. Professional craftsmen and smiths were naturally drawn to these locations to practice their crafts. Towns were distinguished from villages by the presence of these traders and craftsmen. Agriculture was of secondary importance to town residents. They made their living by making and selling their goods, rather than consuming them themselves. [6]

It has been difficult to determine whether these settlements were seasonal, or permanent. Excavations at Kaupang from 1956-1967 indicated only seasonal occupancy, since no evidence of hearths in the excavated houses was found. However, excavations in the summer of 2000 found ample evidence of houses with hearths, which suggests year-round occupancy. The depth of the refuse pits and the number of graves on the site also suggest that the site was a permanent settlement. [7]

1.3 Appearance of the Vikings

The Vikings were on average 8-10 cm shorter than we are today. The skeletons found by archaeologists reveal that the average height for men was around 172 cm and that for women was approximately 160 cm.

Wealthy men and women were taller than average due to their better standard of life. This can be clearly seen in the double grave from Langland, which contained the skeletons of two adult men. The man buried with a spear was over average height - he was 177 cm tall. The other male, who had been decapitated and had his feet tied, was only 171 cm tall. The grave has been interpreted as that of a master and slave, who had to follow his master in death. [10]

The physical build of the Vikings was much like our own. But we can assume that they must have been more muscular than we are today, because of the hard physical work that they did.

The faces of men and women in the Viking Age were more alike than they are today. The women's faces were more masculine than women's today, with prominent brow ridges. On the other hand, the Viking man's appearance was more feminine than that of men today, with a less prominent jaw and brow ridges.

These ambiguous facial features mean that it is difficult to decide upon a Viking skeleton's sex based on the skull alone. Therefore, other traits need to be studied in order to identify the sex of skeletons. Pelvis width can be very useful in this respect. [14]

Genetic research has shown that the Vikings in West Scandinavia, and therefore in Denmark, were mostly red-haired. However, in North Scandinavia, in the area around Stockholm, blonde hair was dominant.

Archaeological finds of ”beauty items” from the Viking period show that such equipment has not significantly changed over the years. If we examine “the toilet bags” of the Vikings we find beautiful patterned combs, ear picks and tweezers. Wear marks on teeth also indicate that tooth picks were used.

Make-up can also be added to the list of beauty items. A Spanish Arab who visited Hedeby around the year 1000 described how both men and women in the town wore make-up to look younger and more attractive.

In England Viking men reportedly had great success with the local women. The Viking males were apparently clean and pleasant smelling, as they took a bath on Saturdays, combed their hair and were well dressed. [10]

In 922 AD the traveler and writer Ibn Fadlan met a group of Viking traders on the Volga River. Ibn Fadlan describes how a slave woman came every morning with a bowl of water for her master, who washed his hands, hair and face in the water, then blew his nose and spat into it. When he had finished the slave took the bowl of water round to the others, who did the same thing. Ibn Fadlan looked upon this washing ritual with disgust. He came from a culture in which personal hygiene had a high priority. As a Muslim he was used to washing himself five times a day before prayers. He therefore described the Vikings as “dirty”.

Even if the Vikings did not live up to Muslim standards of cleanliness, they were not dirty or unhygienic in a Northern European context. They were actually quite well groomed by the standards of the time.

English sources describe the Vikings as immensely attractive in the eyes of English noble women. According to the monk and chronicler John of Wallingford, their attractiveness could be partially attributed to the fact that they took a bath every Saturday. This may have been true, because the Danish word for Saturday “lшrdag” comes from the old Nordic word ”laugardagur”, which means washday.

The hair and beard were of major importance to the Viking man. This can be seen in royal bynames like Sweyn Forkbeard, whose beard was probably divided in two, and Harald Fairhair, who must have had a fine head of hair. The numerous finds of combs show that people combed their hair regularly.

Beards were also well groomed. This can be seen, for example, on a carved male head found at the Oseberg ship burial in Norway. The male has a long elegant moustache and beard.

The Viking women's hair was also well kept. It was typically long and could be attractively styled. We can see this on small silver and bronze figures.

From the Chapter I we could see that the Vikings had very changeable climate but it didn't prevent them from their sea voyages. Their main society class depended on hunting and fighting skills. The Vikings lived mainly in the separate houses in large family groups. They were rather neat, blonde and a bit shorter than people nowadays. [5]

CHAPTER 2. THE CULTURE OF THE VIKINGS

2.1 Religion of the Vikings

The Viking Age was a period of considerable religious change in Scandinavia. Part of the popular image of the Vikings is that they were all pagans, with a hatred of the Christian Church, but this view is very misleading. It is true that almost the entire population of Scandinavia was pagan at the beginning of the Viking Age, but the Vikings had many gods, and it was no problem for them to accept the Christian god alongside their own. Most scholars today believe that Viking attacks on Christian churches had nothing to do with religion, but more to do with the fact that monasteries were typically both wealthy and poorly defended, making them an easy target for plunder.

Monasteries were typically both wealthy and poorly defended, making them an easy target for plunder. [9]

The Vikings came into contact with Christianity through their raids, and when they settled in lands with a Christian population, they adopted Christianity quite quickly. This was true in Normandy, Ireland, and throughout the British Isles. Although contemporary accounts say little about this, we can see it in the archaeological evidence. Pagans buried their dead with grave goods, but Christians normally didn't, and this makes it relatively easy to spot the change in religion.

As well as conversion abroad, the Viking Age also saw a gradual conversion in Scandinavia itself, as Anglo-Saxon and German missionaries arrived to convert the pagans. By the mid-11th century, Christianity was well established in Denmark and most of Norway. Although there was a temporary conversion in Sweden in the early 11th century, it wasn't until the mid-12th century that Christianity became established there. As part of the process of conversion the Christians took over traditional pagan sites. A good example of this can be seen at Gamle Uppsala in Sweden, where the remains of an early church stand alongside a series of huge pagan burial mounds.

We know almost nothing about pagan religious practices in the Viking Age. There is little contemporary evidence, and although there are occasional references to paganism in the Viking sagas - mostly composed in Iceland in the 13th century - we have to remember that these were written down 200 years after the conversion to Christianity. We know that chieftains also had some sort of role as priests, and that pagan worship involved the sacrifice of horses, but not much more.

We know rather more about the stories associated with the pagan gods. Besides occasional references in early poems, these stories survived after conversion because it was possible to regard them simply as myths, rather than as the expression of religious beliefs. The main sources of evidence are the Eddas, wonderful literary works which represent the old pagan beliefs as folk tales. Even here there is some Christian influence. For example, the chief god Odin was sacrificed to himself by being hanged on a tree and pierced in the side with a spear, and this was followed by a sort of resurrection a few days later - a clear parallel with Christ's crucifixion.

Even so, the Eddas provide a huge amount of information about the sir (gods), and their relationship with giants, men and dwarfs. The most powerful god was the one-eyed Odin, the Allfather, god of warfare, justice, death, wisdom and poetry. Probably the most popular god, however, was Thor, who was stupid but incredibly strong. With his hammer Miollnir, crafted by the dwarfs, he was the main defender of the gods against the giants. He was also the god of thunder, and he was particularly worshipped by seafarers. Amulets of Thor's hammer were popular throughout the Viking world. The brother and sister Frey and Freyja, the god and goddess of fertility, were also important, and there were many other minor gods and goddesses. [12]

The great enemies of the gods were the giants, and there were often conflicts between the two races. Among the gods, only Thor was a match for the giants in strength, so the gods usually had to rely on cunning to outwit the giants. Odin himself was capable of clever tricks, but whenever the gods needed a really cunning plan, they turned to the fire-god Loki. Like fire, which can bring necessary warmth or cause great destruction, Loki did many things that benefited the gods, but he also caused them great harm, and often the problems he solved had been caused by his mischief in the first place.

Image of stone cross from the Isle of Man A stone cross from the Isle of Man showing Odin (with raven) fighting the Fenris wolf at the time of Ragnarok Despite the tension between gods and giants, there was a fair amount of contact on an individual basis, and a number of the gods had relationships with giantesses. One of these was Loki, who had three monstrous children by his giantess wife. His daughter Hel became ruler of the underworld. One son, Jormunagund, was a serpent who grew so large that he stretched all the way around the earth. The other son was Fenris, a wolf so powerful that he terrified the gods until they tricked him into allowing himself to be tied up with a magical chain which bound him until the end of time.

It was believed that the world would end with the final battle of Ragnarok, between the gods and the giants. Loki and his children would take the side of the giants. Thor and Jormunagund, who maintained a long-running feud with each other, would kill each other, and Odin would be killed by the Fenris wolf, who would then be killed in turn. A fire would sweep across the whole world, destroying both the gods and mankind. However, just enough members of both races would survive to start a new world.

The raids on the Frankish kingdoms and the British Isles brought increased contact with Christianity. Although Vikings often seem to have maintained their beliefs throughout the periods of their raiding, there was considerable pressure to convert to Christianity if they wished to have more peaceful relations with the Christians. This could happen on a political level, as in the Treaty of Wedmore in 878. The treaty bound the Viking leader Guthrum to accept Christianity, with Alfred of Wessex as his godfather, and Alfred in turn recognised Guthrum as the ruler of East Anglia. [13]

Christians were not really supposed to trade with pagans

Another more or less formal convention applied to trade, since Christians were not really supposed to trade with pagans. Although a full conversion does not seem to have been demanded of all Scandinavian traders, the custom of 'primsigning' (first-signing) was introduced. This was a halfway step, falling short of baptism, but indicating some willingness to accept Christianity, and this was often deemed to be enough to allow trading.

Further pressure came as Viking raiders settled down alongside Christian neighbours. Although scholars disagree on exactly how extensive the Scandinavian settlement was in different parts of the British Isles, few people would now accept that the Vikings completely replaced the native population in any area. In particular, the settlers often took native wives (or at least partners), although some settlers apparently brought their families over from Scandinavia. The children of these mixed marriages would therefore grow up in partially Christian households, and might even be brought up as Christians. Further intermarriage, coupled with the influence of the Church, gradually brought about a complete conversion.

The peaceful co-existence of pagans and Christians is suggested by some of the coinage of Viking York. One coin type carries the name of St Peter, rather than the ruler. This seems very obviously Christian, but on many of the coins, the final 'I' of 'PETRI' takes the form of Thor's hammer, and some of these coins also have a hammer on the reverse. These coins seem to carry a deliberate message that both paganism and Christianity were acceptable. [13]

2.2 Mythology of the Vikings

Scandinavian mythology, is the body of mythology of the North Germanic people stemming from Norse paganism and continuing after the Christianization of Scandinavia and into the Scandinavian folklore of the modern period. The northernmost extension of Germanic mythology, Norse mythology consists of tales of various deities, beings, and heroes derived from numerous sources from both before and after the pagan period, including medieval manuscripts, archaeological representations, and folk tradition. [9]

Now some of the most popular gods would be presented.

Odin1. Odin is the chief of the gods and the ruler of the universe. He was the son of the frost giant Bor and the giantess Bestla. Early in his career, together with his brothers Vili and Ve, Odin overthrew the primeval giant Ymir and fashioned the world from his remains.

Odin, his wife Freya (or Frigg), and the other major Norse divinities - Thor and Tyr -live in Asgard, near which is located Valhalla, where Odin was believed to feast with the spirits of slain warriors. At Ragnarok, the "twilight of the gods", Odin will lead his army against the giants led by Loki. Odin will be devoured by the wolf Fenrir but then be avenged by his son Vidar. Odin's sacred bird is the raven, and his principal weapon - in addition to his powerful runes and magical spells - is the spear. He is depicted as tall, bearded, and one-eyed, having exchanged his other eye for wisdom.

In pre-Christian Scandinavia the Odin cult was apparently characterized by human sacrifice, which was usually accomplished by hanging the victim from a tree.

The German form of his name is Woden, or Wotan; the name Wednesday is derived from Woden's day, woensdag in Dutch.

Thor1. Thor was the personification of thunder and the principal war god. Son of the chief god, Odin, and second only to him in importance, Thor was particularly popular among the lower classes of society. He was armed with a hammer (Mjolnir) that returned to his hand after he hurled it at enemies, a belt that doubled his strength when he wore it, and iron gloves that helped him use the Mjolnir effectively. Most of his battles were fought against giants, and he was benevolent to humankind. Thor was noted for his ability to drink vast amounts; he is generally portrayed as a crude, red-bearded, middle-aged warrior who relied on his immense strength rather than on his wits.

According to one popular legend, the giant who constructed the residence of the gods was rewarded with the Mjolnir. When it fell into the giant Thrym's possession, Thor retrieved it by pretending to be the goddess Freya, whom Thrym demanded as his wife in exchange for the hammer.

Thor, also known as Atli, is identified with Donar, the thunder god of Teutonic mythology. His name survives in the English weekday name Thursday, its German counterpart, Donnerstag and in the Dutch donderdag.

Freya2. Freya, or Freyja, was the goddess of beauty and love.

1See appendix 3.

2See appendix 4.

A beautiful, blonde, blue-eyed young woman, she was the sister of Frey and in later traditions the wife of Odin.

Freya claimed half of the heroes slain in battle, carrying them to her realm of Folkvang in Asgard. Most of her myths concern attempts by the giants to abduct her. In Teutonic mythology, she was named Frigg. Friday is named after her, Freitag in German and vrijdag in Dutch.

Frey1. The god of fertility, peace, and prosperity.

He was one of the Vanir gods, who were responsible for wealth, and the brother of Freya. Among his magical possessions was a sword that he gave to Skirnir, who in return obtained him Gerda, the most beautiful woman in the world, as his wife.

Yggdrasil. Yggdrasil (also Mimameid and Lerad) was the "World tree", a gigantic tree, thought to hold all of the different worlds, such as Asgard, Midgard, Utgard and Hel. Another possibility is that the tree was formerly conceived of as a yew, consistent with its Eddic attribute of being evergreen.

Valhall2. The most beautiful mansion in Asgard, where the heroes slain in battle feasted each night with Odin on the boar Schrimnir and mead from the goat Heldrun. The heroes rode out each morning and fought one another until they were cut to pieces; they recovered from their wounds each evening.

Asgard. The home and citadel of the gods, corresponding to Mount Olympus in Greek mythology. It was located in the heavens and was accessible only over the

1See appendix 5.

2See appendix 6.

rainbow bridge, Bifrost. Asgard had many gold and silver halls or palaces, the most splendid of which was Valhalla, the residence of Odin. The Norse myths held that Asgard would be destroyed at Ragnarok ("Twilight of the Gods"), the final battle in which the giants and demons would overcome the gods. [5]

2.3 Art of the Vikings

During the Viking age, Norse people apparently did not create art for art's sake. There are few examples of decorated objects having no purpose other than to display their ornamentation. Instead, Norse art is characterized by extraordinary ornamentation of everyday objects. Even the humblest objects are elaborately and unrestrainedly decorated. Silver beads and wires were welded to the silver surface to create the brooch shown to the left. The axehead shown to the right was decorated by cutting groves into the iron axehead, then pounding a contrasting silver wire into the groves to create the design.

Many everyday objects were decorated in ways that required high levels of skill on the part of the artist. The historical carved wooden object shown to the right was probably a medallion worn around the neck for personal adornment. The object, about 40mm across, has detailed deep-relief carving.

During the Norse era, various styles of artistic decoration were developed. These styles were used for jewelry as well as a wide variety of other decorative items, such as the decorative mounts shown to the left and below.

It is customary to divide the sequence of Norse art into six successive styles. A particular style lasted for a period of time, but was not immediately replaced by a new style. Rather, the two styles coexisted for a period of time. It's remarkable how quickly new styles overspread the entire Norse sphere of influence. Clearly, communications between the various parts of the Viking world was excellent, and new artistic styles were carried from place to place and were readily adopted. [1]

The six commonly recognized styles are named for the modern geographic area where important archaeological finds have been made.

Oseberg1: This style was used during the first three-quarters of the 9th century. The "gripping beast" motif, first seen in pre-Norse art, is fully developed, and the designs are arranged in a carpet-pattern manner. The sketch to the right shows a detail from a carving on the Oseberg ship.

Borre2: This style was used from the last quarter of the 9th century to the mid-point of the 10th. It features mask-head like animal heads, pretzel shaped bodies, and gripping paws. While other styles of Norse art show exterior influences, the Borre style appears to have been fully created in the Norse home lands. Samples have been found that were produced in Iceland, England, and Russia, showing the extent to which the style spread across the Norse dominions. The sketch shows a detail from a woman's brooch.

Jelling3: This style first appeared at the beginning of the 10th century and continued through the third quarter of the 10th century. Animal shapes are "S" shaped and are intertwined to form an open interlace pattern with diagonal symmetry. The sketch shows a cup found in Jelling, Denmark.

Mammen4: This style flourished in the last half of the 10th century.

Seminaturalistic lion and bird motifs, based on European prototypes, were

1See appendix 7.

2See appendix 8.

3See appendix 9.

4See appendix 10.

used, along with the familiar Norse serpent. Characteristically, one or two large motifs fill a panel, with asymmetric scrolls and ornamental lines. The sketch shows a detail from a casket lid, carved in elk ivory.

Ringerike1: This style dates from the first half of the 11th century. Lion-like beasts continue to be used, but with tightly clustered tendrils forming their manes and tails. Plant motifs are also used with foliate patterns. The sketch shows a detail from a weather vane, probably from the prow of a ship.

Urnes2: This style was used from the middle of the 11th century well into the 12th century, and it represents the last Norse art style. Extremely stylized animals are used, with heads and feet reduced to mere elongated terminals. Figure-eight and multi-loop compositions are employed. The sketch shows a silver brooch from Iceland. [4]

In art, exceedingly complicated forms are used all over a figure to create a single unified image. Similarly in literature, multiple plot lines are developed and abandoned, only to be taken up again in order to create a single, unified dramatic narrative.

It's been suggested that this similarity between poetry and visual arts derives from the same underlying sensibility in Norse culture: some innate appreciation and enjoyment of these ornate, baroque forms.

To sum up the Chapter II it must be mentioned that the Vikings religion,

mythology and art are strongly connected.

1See appendix 11.

2See appendix 12.

vikings religion art society

CONCLUSION

Usually when we talk about the ancient Vikings, the notorious raiders come to mind. But this is only a part of the picture, and a small part at that. We seldom see the huge culture that rests behind these coastal raiders, the families, arts and crafts of the Scandinavians in the early Middle Ages.

These ancient people had their own society, consisting of many classes, they also had the duty to be honest and brave, otherwise this could lead to desecration of their family or tribe and after that, they could be banished from the tribe.

We are also learnt from this work that the Vikings were much more neat that we used to think.

In addition, the stereotype that the Vikings were nomadic bandits could be challenged, because life in the Scandinavian society was various, the Vikings had their own settlements and wanted to expand it. This desire was the purpose of their raids and sails. By the way, we know from the history that a lot of countries tried to occupy alien territories and get more captives to form colonies. It was typical for that period of time.

To sum up, it should be said that the Vikings themselves did not write down their historical events. Historians used other, more indirect means of reconstructing what Viking life was like.

The word Viking or Vikings has become so well known, that it's probably easier to change our ideas about these people than start using another name for them.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Arnold M. The Vikings: Culture and Conquest. Continuum, 1999. 256 p.

Christiansen E. The Norsemen in the Viking Age. Wiley-Blackwell, 2006. 396 p.

Forte A., Oram R. and Pedersen F. Viking Empires. Cambridge University Press, 2005. 462 p.

Glubok S., Nook G. The Art of the Vikings. Atheneum, 1978. 48 p.

Haywood J. Encyclopaedia of the Viking Age. Thames &Hudson, 2000. 224 p.

Haywood J. Penguin Historical Atlas of the Vikings. Penguin, 1996. 144 p.

Jones G. A History of the Vikings Paperback. Oxford University Press, 2001. 552 p.

Larson L. M. The Earliest Norwegian Laws. New York: Columbia University Press, 1939.

Orchard A. Dictionary of Norse Myth and Legend. Cassell, 1997. 223 p.

Appearance of the Vikings // Электронный ресурс Интернет: http://ancient.holm.ru/topics/articles/14_scandinav/atcl_scandinav

“The Thing” gathering // Электронный ресурс Интернет: http://www.arild-hauge.com/elov.htm

Religion of the Vikings // Электронный ресурс Интернет: http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/vikings/religion_01.shtml

Religion and mythology of the Vikings // Электронный ресурс Интернет: http://www.danishnet.com/info.php/vikings/viking-religion-15.html

Appearance of the Vikings // Электронный ресурс Интернет: http://natmus.dk/en/historisk-viden/danmark/prehistoric-period-until-1050-ad/the-viking-age/the-people/appearance/

Living standards in the Scandinavian society // Электронный ресурс: Интернет http://www.rosala-viking-centre.com/history.htm

APPENDIX 1

APPENDIX 2

APPENDIX 3

APPENDIX 4

APPENDIX 5

APPENDIX 6

APPENDIX 7

APPENDIX 8

APPENDIX 9

APPENDIX 10

APPENDIX 11

APPENDIX 12

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