Великий государственный деятель и полководец Амир Темур

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Ан Тимур

Великий государственный деятель и полководец Амир Темур родился недалеко от города Шахрисабза. С юных лет он был хорошо знаком с военным делом, а личная храбрость и ярко выраженные качества вожака очень скоро сделали его предводителем вооружённого отряда.

Амир Темур (1336--1405)

По признанию современников, Темур обладал выдающимися организаторскими способностями и полководческим талантом, прозорливостью, сильной волей и государственным умом.

Основной и верной опорой Темура было его войско, лучшее во всём европейско-азиатском мире. В походах Темура всегда царил строгий порядок, за нарушение которого следовало немедленное наказание.

Как хороший хозяин, после походов Темур все ценности свозил в центр своего обширного государства. При нём в крупных городах трудились мастера и ремесленники. Столицей своего государства Темур избрал Самарканд, которому, по его мнению, по величине и красоте не мог быть равным ни один город мира. Темур украсил город новыми зданиями, благоустроенными базарами, ремесленными мастерскими, загородными садами.

Амир Темур (1336--1405)

Известный историк средневекового Востока Ибн Арабшах, видевший Темура за два года до его смерти, так описывает свои впечатления: "Темур был хорошо сложен, высокого роста; имел открытый лоб, большую голову, сильный голос, и его сила не уступала его храбрости; яркий румянец оживлял белизну лица. Он имел широкие плечи, толстые пальцы, длинные бёдра, сильные мускулы. Он носил длинную бороду; правая рука и нога были изувечены. Его взгляд был довольно ласков. Он пренебрегал смертью. Он не позволял при себе разговаривать о разбоях, любил выслушивать правду, как бы она ни была жестка.

Друг храбрых солдат, сам полный мужества, он умел заставить уважать себя и повиноваться".

Вся жизнь Темура прошла в неустанных государственных трудах и военных походах.

Амир Темур

Амир Тимур (Тамерлан, Тимурленг, Темираксак) сын Тарагая Барласа родился в 1336г. 9 апреля, вблизи Самарканда. Он, как говорит предание, родился с куском запекшейся крови в руке и с белыми как у старца волосами, такое же говорили о Чингиз-хане. Его отец - эмир Тарагай Барлас был правителем Кешской долины.

Амир Темур

Детство и молодость Тимура.

Даже когда он был ребенком, Тимур умел тогда показать свое влияние на своих сверстников в различных военных играх. С раннего возраста он только и говорил о военных походах и завоеваниях, его игры состояли из битв, тело его укреплялось день за днем, а ум развитый не по годам внушал ему обширные проекты, и Тимур уже думал о способах их осуществления. С 12ти лет от роду Тимур поступает на военную службу. На этом месте я бы хотел подробнее остановится и описать события, которые происходили в то время. Известно, что завоевания Чингиз-хана делились на 4 независимые улусы (ханства), Китай, Маньчжурия, Корея, часть Индии и Монголии составляли Восточное ханство. Восточная часть нынешней Киргизской орды, земли от верхних частей Иртыша и Оби и гор Тянь-Шань и южного хребта до Гималайского, с долиной в некоторых местах горда Кашгар и др., а также кокандские, бухарские и хивинские ханства входили в состав Чагатайского ханства. Хорасан, земли от Инда до Кавказа составляли 3ье ханство.

Западная часть Киргизской орды а также большая часть Европейской России до Кавказа составляли владения ханов Золотой Орды. Ханства эти управлялись ханами из дома Чингизидов, но права наследства не были точно определены, выбор в ханство зависел от курултая (совета вельмож), что давало повод к интригам, подкупам, насилию, следовательно давало силу вельможам и ослабляло власть хана. При том границы между ханствами не были точно определены, и это тоже давало повод ссорам имеждоусобицам, и войнам во время которых многие из подданных этих четырех ханств, будучи также потомками Чингизхана отказывались повиноваться главным ханам и сделавшись независимыми, в свою очередь ссорились и воевали между собой.

Все эти события привели к ослаблению потомков Чингизхана и подготовили их падение почти одновременно во всех четырех ханствах.

Китай первый свергнул иго монголов в 1367 году, изгнав в степи Монголии последнего чингизова потомка, Тоган-Тимура. На западе, в Золотой Орде были те же междоусобицы ослабившие Орду, пользуясь которыми Россия собиралась скинуть тяготевшее ее иго. В Персии завоевания Гулагу раздробились на несколько независимых государств. Наследие Чагатая постигла такая же участь.

В 1322 году на престол чагатайского ханства взошел Казан-хан и своими действиями возбудил к себе ненависть среди вельмож и общее негодование; многие из вельмож были возмущены, и после сражения в 1346 году Казан-хан были убит.

Спустя несколько лет после его смерти начались междоусобицы пользуясь которыми один из потомков Чингиз-хана, владетель земель к северу от Сырдарьи хан Тоглук Тимур предъявил свои права на престол своего предка и с сильной армией в составе которой было много узбеков, в 1359 перешел через р. Сыр-Дарья и без большого труда захватил все пространство между реками Сырдарья и Амударья. Устрашась этой армии часть владельных вельмож из потомков Чингисхана укрепилась в Хорасане и Афганистане; другая часть считая сопротивление бесполезным покорилась. В числе последних были и Тимур потерявший к тому времени своего отца и не успевший еще приобрести к тому времени влияние между своими соотечественниками, но не удовольствовался только покорностью , отправился в армию неприятеля с подарками, сумел спасти свои земли от грабежа и посеять вражду во владениях Тоглук-Тимура. Между тем Тимур своею наружною покорностью получил от Тоглук-Тимура утверждение в своем владении, командование над 10.000 корпусов (тумынем) и должность при дворе его сына Иоьяс-ходжи. Но его согласие с правительством Ильяс-Ходжи длилось недолго, из-за раздоров между кочевниками (язычниками) и оседлыми (мусульманами). Судя по источникам того времени, там были столкновения между Тимуром и узбекскими племенами что и вызвало у Тоглук-Тимура гнев, и по его приказанию надо было умертвить Тимура. Но приказ какими-то путями попал в руки самого Тимура. Угрожаемый этой опасностью и видя возможность пленения своими соотечественниками он решился собрать смелых и решительных воинов чтобы прогнать узбеков. Но когда его намерение было открыто он был вынужден бежать за реку Амударью, с тем чтобы укрыться в Бадахшанских горах. Находясь в таком положении Тмур начинает скитаться по Туркестанским степям "везя на крупе своей лошади свою первую жену, сестру эмира Хусейна, в ожидании счастливого оборота своей судьбы". Во время его странствий владелец земель Али-бек желая угодить Ильяс-Ходже схватил и засадил Тимура в подземелье (а точнее в колодец наполненный насекомыми), в которой он проводит 62 дня. организаторский полководческий ханство племя

Но один из преданных ему людей освобождает его от заключения (позднее этот человек становится министро при дворе Тимура). И тимур сопровождаемый 12-ю воинами отправляется бродить по степям. В это же время, а точнее через несколько месяцев оно оказывается в Сеистане куда призвал его владелец тех земель для борьбы против своего врага. Там он получаепт ранение стрелой в руку (отчего у него некоторые кости правой руки срастаются) и ранение в ногу и становиться тем кем его называли его почти до самой смерти - Хромым Тимуром (Темурленг, Темир-аксак, Тамерлан...). Так он бродил по различным городам Мавераннахра - Бухара, Самарканд и т. д. В дальнейшем он приобретает своими действиями многих сторонников (около 2.000) человек. Но так как этих сил было недостаточно для вступления в борьбу с Ильяс-Ходжой и узбеками, которые выставили против него 100.000 челове, то он решился идти в Кандагар в ожидании что дальнейшие действия (притеснения) узбеков и его новые подвиги увеличат число его сторонников.

Так как его слава росла то на его пути к нему присоединились еще несколько сот воинов, большей частью высших сословий. Из них он отобрал 313 самых преданных, мужественных и даровитых помощников которые потом послужат ему для устройства многотысячной армии.

Такими испытаниями судьбы и превратностями счастья Тимур научился выбирать себе людей, оценивать их по достоинству и подготовило его к той великой роли которую он потом сыграет в истории в течении остальных 35 лет своей жизни. И во время этих и последующих лет он составит те правила которые будут известны нам как "Уложения Тимура".

Примечательный факт, в 1383 Тимур в Сеистане заново встречает того человека который ранил его и он приказывает его расстрелять из луков.

SPECIALIZED EDUCATION OF THE REPUBLIC OF UZBEKISTAN

Fergana professional college of the industry and services sector “ENGLISH LANGUAGE”

Report

Theme: AMIR TIMUR

DONE BY: 32-16 group

Tashmatova Z.

SUPERVISOR

Fergana-2017

TIMUR

Timur, Tarmashirin Khan, Emir Timur (Persian: К?гжСэ Timыr, Chagatai: Temьr "iron"; 9 April 1336 - 18 February 1405), historically known as Tamerlane (from Persian: КнгжС бдђэ, Timыr-i Lang, Aksak Timur "Timur the Lame" in Turkish), was a Turkic ruler. He conquered West, South and Central Asia and founded the Timurid dynasty. He was the grandfather of Ulugh Beg, who ruled Central Asia from 1411 to 1449, and the great-great-great-grandfather of Babur Beg, founder of the Mughal Empire, which ruled South Asia for centuries.

Timur envisioned the restoration of the Mongol Empire of Genghis Khan.[13] Unlike his predecessors Timur was also a devout Muslim who referred to himself as the Sword of Islam, converting nearly all the Borjigin leaders to Islam during his lifetime.[14] His armies were inclusively multi-ethnic. During his lifetime Timur would emerge as the most powerful ruler in the Muslim world after defeating the Mamluks of Egypt and Syria, the emerging Ottoman Empire and the declining Sultanate of Delhi. Timur had also decisively defeated the Christian Knights Hospitaller at Smyrna; styling himself a Ghazi.y the end of his reign Timur had also gained complete suzerainty over all the remnants of the Chagatai Khanate, Ilkhanate, Golden Horde and even attempted to restore the Yuan dynasty.

Timur's armies were feared throughout Asia, Africa, and Europe. sizable parts of which were laid to ruin by his campaigns. Scholars estimate that his military campaigns caused the deaths of 17 million people, amounting to about 5% of the world population.

On the other hand, Timur is also recognized as a great patron of art and architecture, while he interacted with Muslim intellectuals such as Ibn Khaldun and Hafiz-i Abru

Early history

Emir Timur feasts in the gardens of Samarkand.

Timur was born in Transoxiana , near the City of Kesh (an area now better known as Shahrisabz, "the green city"), some fifty miles south of Samarkand in modern day Uzbekistan, part of the Chagatai Khanate. His father, Taraqai, was a minor noble belonging to the Barlas tribe. The Barlas, a Turko-Mongol tribewhich originally were Mongolian tribes that became Turkified[23] and/or became Turkic-speaking or intermingling with the Turkic peoples. According to Gйrard Chaliand, Timur was a Muslim Turk but he saw himself as Genghis Khan's heir. Though not a Chinggisid,[27] he clearly sought to evoke the legacy of Genghis Khan's conquests during his lifetime.

At the age of eight or nine, Timur with his mother and brothers, were carried as prisoners to Samarkand by an invading Mongol army.

In his childhood, Timur with a small band of followers raided travelers for goods with most being animals such as sheep, horses, and cattle. At around 1363, it is believed that Timur tried to steal a sheep from a shepherd but was shot by two arrows; one in his right leg and another in his right hand, where he lost two fingers. Both injuries caused him to be crippled for life. Some believe that Timur suffered his crippling injuries while serving as a mercenary to the khan of Sistan in Khorasan in what is known today as Dasht-i Margo (Desert of Death) in south-west Afghanistan. Timur's injuries have given him the surname of Timur the Lame or Tamerlane by Europeans.

Timur was a Muslim, but while his chief official religious counsellor and advisor was the Hanafi scholar 'Abdu 'l-Jabbar Khwarazmi, his particular persuasion is not known. In Tirmidh, he had come under the influence of his spiritual mentor Sayyid Barakah, a leader from Balkh who is buried alongside Timur in Gur-e Amir. Timur was known to hold Ali and the Ahlul Bayt in high regard and has been noted by various scholars for his "pro-Alid" stance. Despite this, Timur was noted for attacking Shi'is on Sunni grounds and therefore his own religious inclinations remain unclear.

Personality

Timur is regarded as a military genius and a tactician, with an uncanny ability to work within a highly fluid political structure to win and maintain a loyal following of nomads during his rule in Central Asia. He was also considered extraordinarily intelligent- not only intuitively but also intellectually. In Samarkand and his many travels, Timur, under the guidance of distinguished scholars was able to learn Persian, Mongolian, and Turkic languages. More importantly, Timur was characterized as an opportunist. Taking advantage of his Turco-Mongolia heritage, Timur frequently used either the Islamic religion or the law and traditions of the Mongol Empire to achieve his military goals or domestic political aims.

Military leader

Map of the Timurid Empire

In about 1360 Timur gained prominence as a military leader whose troops were mostly Turkic tribesmen of the region. He took part in campaigns in Transoxiana with the Khan of Chagatai. His career for the next ten or eleven years may be thus briefly summarized from the Memoirs. Allying himself both in cause and by family connection with Kurgan, the dethroner and destroyer of Volga Bulgaria, he was to invade Khorasan at the head of a thousand horsemen. This was the second military expedition that he led, and its success led to further operations, among them the subjugation of Khorezm and Urganj.

Following Kurgan's murder, disputes arose among the many claimants to sovereign power; this infighting was halted by the invasion of the energetic Chagtaid Tughlugh Timur of Kashgar, another descendant of Genghis Khan. Timur was dispatched on a mission to the invader's camp, which resulted in his own appointment to the head of his own tribe, the Barlas, in place of its former leader, Hajji Beg.

The exigencies of Timur's quasi-sovereign position compelled him to have recourse to his formidable patron, whose reappearance on the banks of the Syr Darya created a consternation not easily allayed. One of Tughlugh's sons was entrusted with the Barlas's territory, along with the rest of Mawarannahr (Transoxiana); but he was defeated in battle by the bold warrior he had replaced at the head of a numerically far inferior force.

Rise to power

Timur commanding the Siege of Balkh.

Timur besieges the historic city of Urganj.

It was in this period that Timur reduced the Chagatai khans to the position of figureheads while Timur ruled in their name. During this period Timur and his brother-in-law Husayn, who were at first fellow fugitives and wanderers in joint adventures, became rivals and antagonists. The relationship between Timur and Husayn began to become strained after Husayn abandoned Timur's orders to finish off Ilya Khoja (former governor of Mawarannah) close to Tishnet.

Timur began to gain a following of people in Balkh that consisted of merchants, fellow tribesmen, Muslim clergy, aristocracy and agricultural workers because of his kindness to share his belongings with them; as opposed to Husayn who alienated these people, took many possessions from them because of his heavy tax laws and selfishly spend the tax money building elaborate structures.[41] At around 1370 Husayn surrendered to Timur; later being assassinated by a chief of a tribe, allowed Timur to formally proclaimed sovereign at Balkh. Timur married Husayn's wife Saray Mulk-khanum; a descendant of Genghis Khan, allowing him to become imperial ruler of Chaghatay tribe.

One day Aksak Temьr spoke thusly:

"Khan Zьdei (in China) rules over the city. We now number fifty to sixty men, so let us elect a leader." So they drove a stake into the ground and said: "We shall run thither and he who among us is the first to reach the stake, may he become our leader". So they ran and Aksak Timur (since he was lame) lagged behind, but before the others reached the stake he threw his cap onto it. Those who arrived first said: "We are the leaders". (But) Aksak Timur said: "My head came in first, I am the leader". In the meanwhile an old man arrived and said: "The leadership should belong to Aksak Timur; your feet have arrived but, before then, his head reached the goal". So they made Aksak Timur their prince.

Legitimization of Timur's rule

Timur's Turco-Mongolian heritage provided opportunities and challenges as he sought to rule the Mongol Empire and the Muslim world. According to the Mongol traditions, Timur could not claim the title of khan or rule the Mongol Empire because he was not a descendant of Genghis Khan. Therefore, Timur set up a puppet Chaghatay khan, Suyurghatmish, as the nominal ruler of Balkh as he pretended to act as a "protector of the member of a Chinggisid line, that of Chinggis Khan's eldest son, Jochi."

As a result, Timur never used the title of khan because the name khan could only be used by those who come from the same lineage as Genghis Khan himself. Timur instead used the title of amir meaning general, and acting in the name of the Chagatai ruler of Transoxania.

To reinforce his position in the Mongol Empire, Timur managed to acquire the royal title of son-in-law when he married a princess of Chinggisid descent.

Likewise, Tamerlane could not claim the supreme title of the Islamic world, caliph, because the “office was limited to the Quraysh, the tribe of the Prophet Muhammad.” Therefore, Tamerlane reacted to the challenge by creating a myth and image of himself as a “supernatural personal power ordained by the Islamic God. Since Tamerlane had a successful career as a conqueror, it was easy to justify his rule as ordained and favored by God since no ordinary man could be a possessor of such good fortune that resistance would be seen as opposing the will of Allah. Moreover, the Islamic notion that military and political success was the result of Allah's favor had long been successfully exploited by earlier rulers. Therefore, Tamerlane's assertions would not have seemed unbelievable to his fellow Islamic people.

Period of expansion

Timur orders campaign against Georgia.

Emir Timur's army attacks the survivors of the town of Nerges, in Georgia, in the spring of 1396.

Timur spent the next 35 years in various wars and expeditions. He not only consolidated his rule at home by the subjugation of his foes, but sought extension of territory by encroachments upon the lands of foreign potentates. His conquests to the west and northwest led him to the lands near the Caspian Sea and to the banks of the Ural and the Volga. Conquests in the south and south-West encompassed almost every province in Persia, including Baghdad, Karbala and Northern Iraq.

One of the most formidable of Timur's opponents was another Mongol ruler, a descendant of Genghis Khan named Tokhtamysh. After having been a refugee in Timur's court, Tokhtamysh became ruler both of the eastern Kipchak and the Golden Horde. After his accession, he quarrelled with Timur over the possession of Khwarizm and Azerbaijan. However, Timur still supported him against the Russians and in 1382 Tokhtamysh invaded the Muscovite dominion and burned Moscow.

After the death of Abu Sa'id, ruler of the Ilkhanid Dynasty, in 1335, there was a power vacuum in Persia. In 1383, Timur started the military conquest of Persia. He captured Herat, Khorasan and all eastern Persia by 1385; he captured almost all of Persia by 1387. Of note during the Persian campaign was the capture of Isfahan. When Isfahan surrendered to Timur in 1387, he treated it with relative mercy as he normally did with cities that surrendered. However, after the city revolted against Timur's taxes by killing the tax collectors and some of Timur's soldiers Timur ordered the massacre of the city's citizens with the death toll reckoned at between 100,000 and 200,000. An eye-witness counted more than 28 towers constructed of about 1,500 heads each. This has been described as a "systematic use of terror against towns...an integral element of Tamerlane's strategic element" which he viewed as preventing bloodshed by discouraging resistance. His massacres were selective and he spared the artistic and technical (e.g. engineers) elites.

In the meantime Tokhtamysh, now khan of the Golden Horde, turned against his patron and in 1385 invaded Azerbaijan. The inevitable response by Timur resulted in the Tokhtamysh-Timur war. In the initial stage of the war Timur won a victory at the Battle of the Kondurcha River. After the battle Tokhtamysh and some of his army were allowed to escape. After Tokhtamysh's initial defeat Timur then invaded Muscovy to the north of Tokhtamysh's holdings. Timur's army burned Ryazan and advanced on Moscow. He was then pulled away before reaching the Oka River by Tokhtamysh's renewed campaign in the south.

In the first phase of the conflict with Tokhtamysh, Timur led an army of over 100,000 men north for more than 700 miles into the steppe. He then rode west about 1,000 miles advancing in a front more than 10 miles wide. During this advance Timur's army got far enough north to be in a region of very long summer days causing complaints by his Muslim soldiers about keeping a long schedule of prayers.It was then that Tokhtamysh's army was boxed in against the east bank of the Volga River in the Orenburg region and destroyed at the Battle of the Kondurcha River.

It was in the second phase of the conflict that Timur took a different route against the enemy by invading the realm of Tokhtamysh via the Caucasus region. The year 1395 saw the Battle of the Terek River concluding the titanic struggle between the two monarchs.

Tokhtamysh was not able to restore his power or prestige. He was killed about a decade after the Terek River battle in the area of present day Tyumen.

During the course of Timur's campaigns his army destroyed Sarai, the capital of the Golden Horde, and Astrakhan, subsequently disrupting the Golden Horde's Silk Road. The Golden Horde no longer held power after the coming of Tamerlane.

In May 1393 Timur's army invaded the Anjudan. This crippled the Ismaili village only one year after his assault on the Ismailis in Mazandaran. The village was prepared for the attack. This is evidenced by it containing a fortress and a system of underground tunnels. Undeterred Timur's soldiers flooded the tunnels by cutting into a channel overhead. Timur's reasons for attacking this village are not yet well-understood. However, it has been suggested that his religious persuasions and view of himself as an executor of divine will may have contributed to his motivations.[52] The Persian historian Khwandamir explains that an Ismaili presence was growing more politically powerful in Persian Iraq. A group of locals in the region was dissatisfied with this and, Khwandamir writes, that these locals assembled and brought up their complaint with Timur; possibly provoking his attack on the Ismailis there.

Campaign against the Tughlaq Dynasty

Timur defeats the Sultan of Delhi, Nasir Al-Din Mahmud Tughluq, in the winter of 1397-1398, painting dated 1595-1600.

In 1398, Timur invaded northern India, attacking the Delhi Sultanate ruled by Sultan Nasir-ud-Din Mahmud Shah Tughluq of the Tughlaq Dynasty. He was opposed by Ahirs and Jats but Delhi Government did nothing to stop him. After crossing the Indus river on 30 September 1398, he sacked Tulamba and massacred its inhabitants. Then he advanced and captured Multan by October.

He justified his campaign towards Delhi as a religious war against the Hindu religion practiced in the city and also as a chance for to gain more riches in a city that was lacking control. By all accounts, Timur's campaigns in India were marked by systematic slaughter and other atrocities on a truly massive scale inflicted mainly on the subcontinent's Hindu population.

Timur crossed the Indus River at Attock (now Pakistan) on 24 September 1398. His invasion did not go unopposed and he encountered resistance by the Governor of Meerut during the march to Delhi. Timur was still able to continue his approach to Delhi, arriving in 1398, to fight the armies of Sultan Nasir-ud-Din Mahmud Shah Tughluq, which had already been weakened by a succession struggle within the royal family.

The battle took place on 17 December 1398. Sultan Nasir-ud-Din Mahmud Shah Tughluq and Mallu's army had war elephants armored with chain mail and poison on their tusks. With his Tatar forces afraid of the elephants, Timur ordered his men to dig a trench in front of their positions. Timur then loaded his camels with as much wood and hay as they could carry. When the war elephants charged, Timur set the hay on fire and prodded the camels with iron sticks, causing them to charge at the elephants howling in pain: Timur had understood that elephants were easily panicked. Faced with the strange spectacle of camels flying straight at them with flames leaping from their backs, the elephants turned around and stampeded back toward their own lines. Timur capitalized on the subsequent disruption in Nasir-ud-Din Mahmud Shah Tughluq's forces, securing an easy victory. Delhi was sacked and left in ruins. Before the battle for Delhi, Timur executed 100,000 captives:

The capture of the Delhi Sultanate was one of Timur's greatest victories, arguably surpassing the likes of Alexander the Great and Genghis Khan because of the harsh conditions of the journey and the achievement of taking down one of the richest cities at the time.

After Delhi fell to Timur's army, uprisings by its citizens against the Turkic-Mongols began to occur, causing a bloody massacre within the city walls. After three days of citizens uprising within Delhi, it was said that the city reeked of decomposing bodies of its citizens with their heads being erected like structures and the bodies left as food for the birds.

Timur's invasion and destruction of Delhi continued the chaos that was still consuming India and the city would not be able to recover from the great loss it suffered for almost a century.

Timur defeating the Mamluk Sultan Nasir-ad-Din Faraj of Egypt.

Campaigns in the Levant

Bayezid I being held captive by Timur.

Before the end of 1399, Timur started a war with Bayezid I, sultan of the Ottoman Empire, and the Mamluk sultan of Egypt Nasir-ad-Din Faraj. Bayezid began annexing the territory of Turkmen and Muslim rulers in Anatolia. As Timur claimed sovereignty over the Turkmen rulers, they took refuge behind him. Timur invaded Syria, sacked Aleppo and captured Damascus after defeating the Mamluk army. The city's inhabitants were massacred, except for the artisans, who were deported to Samarkand.

In a form of rectification, in 1400 Timur invaded Christian Armenia and Georgia. Of the surviving population, more than 60,000 of the local people were captured as slaves, and many districts were depopulated.[63]

He invaded Baghdad in June 1401. After the capture of the city, 20,000 of its citizens were massacred. Timur ordered that every soldier should return with at least two severed human heads to show him. (Many warriors were so scared they killed prisoners captured earlier in the campaign just to ensure they had heads to present to Timur.)[citation needed]

Mosque of Timur.

In the meantime, years of insulting letters had passed between Timur and Bayezid. Finally, Timur invaded Anatolia and defeated Bayezid in the Battle of Ankara on 20 July 1402. Bayezid was captured in battle and subsequently died in captivity, initiating the twelve-year Ottoman Interregnum period. Timur's stated motivation for attacking Bayezid and the Ottoman Empire was the restoration of Seljuq authority. Timur saw the Seljuks as the rightful rulers of Anatolia as they had been granted rule by Mongol conquerors, illustrating again Timur's interest with Genghizid legitimacy.

After the Ankara victory, Timur's army ravaged Western Anatolia, with Muslim writers complaining that the Timurid army acted more like a horde of savages than that of a civilized conqueror.[citation needed] But Timur did take the city of Smyrna, a stronghold of the Christian Knights Hospitalers, thus he referred to himself as ghazi or "Warrior of Islam".

Timur was furious at the Genoese and Venetians whose ships ferried the Ottoman army to safety in Thrace. As Lord Kinross reported in The Ottoman Centuries, the Italians preferred the enemy they could handle to the one they could not.

While Timur invaded Anatolia, Qara Yusuf assaulted Baghdad and captured it in 1402. Timur returned to Persia from Anatolia and sent his grandson Abu Bakr ibn Mirah Shah to reconquer Baghdad, which he proceeded to do. Timur then spent some time in Ardabil, where he gave Ali Safavi, leader of the Safaviyya, a number of captives. Subsequently, he marched to Khorasan and then to Samarkhand, where he spent nine months celebrating and preparing to invade Mongolia and China.[64]

He ruled over an empire that, in modern times, extends from southeastern Turkey, Syria, Iraq, and Iran, through Central Asia encompassing part of Kazakhstan, Afghanistan, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Pakistan, and even approaches Kashgar in China. The conquests of Timur are claimed to have caused the deaths of up to 17 million people; an assertion impossible to verify.[65] Timur's campaigns sometimes caused large and permanent demographic changes. Northern Iraq remained predominantly Assyrian Christian until attacked, looted, plundered and destroyed by Timur, leaving its population decimated by systematic mass slaughter.[66]

Of Timur's four sons, two (Jahangir and Umar Shaykh) predeceased him. His third son, Miran Shah, died soon after Timur, leaving the youngest son, Shah Rukh. Although his designated successor was his grandson Pir Muhammad b. Jahangir, Timur was ultimately succeeded in power by his son Shah Rukh. His most illustrious descendant Babur founded the Islamic Mughal Empire and ruled over most of Afghanistan and North India. Babur's descendants Humayun, Akbar, Jahangir, Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb, expanded the Mughal Empire to most of the Indian subcontinent.

Markham, in his introduction to the narrative of Clavijo's embassy, states that his body "was embalmed with musk and rose water, wrapped in linen, laid in an ebony coffin and sent to Samarkand, where it was buried." His tomb, the Gur-e Amir, still stands in Samarkand, though it has been heavily restored in recent years.

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