Neolithic of the Northeast Asia and the Arctic Small Tool Tradition of the North America

Supposedly, the flat triangular projectile points with notches at the base served as harpoon tips . In Alaska, they have only been found at coastal sites , although in the Kolyma region and in Chukotka, such projectile points are quite common at strictly interior sites where harpoons are absent .

Lanceolate projectile point bases vary from pointed to flat or obliquely truncated bases. Many of these tools indicate the presence of the bow and arrow technology . Its presence was also suggested by smoothers with a narrow groove (5-7 mm wide), similar to the diameter of arrows, from Iyatayet and Onion Portage , and finally confirmed by the discovery of bow parts and multiple arrow shafts from Qeqertasussuk in Greenland . Side blade inserts have an asymmetrically lanceolate shape with a somewhat asymmetric lens-like cross-section. One of the most characteristic Denbigh tools is a “mitten-shaped” burin on a blade-like flake, dihedral and angle burin rejuvenated by spalling multiple times.

Organic tools are rare at the DFC sites. At Punyuk Point, there is a thin arrow point, perhaps slotted, and a digging tool made from caribou antler . At Trail Creek, antler and bone “arrow points” (some of them slotted) and a decorated slotted bone handle or arrow point were found , and Engigstciak yielded a slotted bone foreshaft, bone fish gorges, awls, and antler flakers . However, DFC materials are mixed at these sites with younger levels, and the association of these tools remains unclear. Small stone tools of the ASTt complex imply the presence of various slotted shafts, harpoons, and spears.

Fig. 4. Stone tools assemblage of the ASTt tradition (1-19): 1 -- microblade core; 2, 4, 6 -- microblades; 3, 15, 18 -- points; 5, 10, 12, 17 -- side inserts; 7 -- adze; 8 -- flake knife; 9, 19 -- “mittenshaped” burins; 13, 14 -- scrapers; 16 -- corner burin (Nos. 1-6, 9, 10, 13, 15, 16, 18, 19 -- are from Punyik Point Site; nos. 8, 12 -- are from Kurupa Lake Site; no. 11 -- from Margaret Bay Site; no. 17 -- from Sell-033 Site, all drawn by S. Slobodin from the collections; nos. 7 and 14 -- are redrawn by S. Slobodin, respectively, after D. Dumomd [1987] and after D. Anderson [1988])

An example of organic ASTt tool set was recently obtained from the Matcharak Lake site : several dozen bone and antler tools, including barbs of a leister prong, projectile points, composite fish hooks, a pressure flaker for flint-knapping, a hammer from antler, and a decorated foreshaft from a rib bone.

The economic/subsistence basis for ASTt entailed exploring environmental resources from the home area. A home area encompassing various landscape zones guaranteed greater stability of their subsistence during the lean years. Faunal remains from interior and coastal ASTt sites are very rare and come only from a few ASTt sites, making it difficult to reconstruct their subsistence in detail . Considering the environmental conditions of the ASTt site locations and the few faunal remains of animals and fish found there, researchers conclude that the ASTt inhabitants survived on both continental and maritime (coastal) resources, hunting seasonal terrestrial and maritime animals and fishing based on the regional and local ecological opportunities, using spears, bow and arrows, harpoon, terrestrial traps, and fish traps in streams and lakes .

In the continental/interior ASTt sites in Arctic Alaska people, undoubtedly, relied mostly on caribou, especially during their mass migrations in the fall and spring through the Brooks Range, which continues to this day . Evidence for this comes from caribou remains from Engigstciak , Punyik Point , Imaigenik , Onion Portage and Matcharak Lake .

Fish bones and scales have been found at lakeside sites (Punyik Point, Matcharak Lake), indicating that fishing supported human diets. Near the mountains, people hunted Dall sheep, whose bones were found at Matcharak Lake and Engigstciak. In the summer, while waiting for the caribou, ASTt inhabitants could have hunted Arctic ground squirrels, which are abundant in the Brooks Range . In the boreal forest, they also hunted wapiti, whose remains were identified at Engigstciak .

Comprehensive data regarding ASTt subsistence and settlement pattern of this area were recently received from the Lake Matcharak site (Upper Noatak drainage) , characterized by great faunal preservation. The site is located in the mountains near modern migration routes of caribou to their winter range . Excavations yielded over 80,000 bones, 90 % of which were caribou bones. Small portions of the collection come from faunal remains of other mammals (Dall sheep, ground squirrel, marmot, snowshoe hare and porcupine), birds (ptarmigan and ducks), and fish (burbot, grayling, lake trout, pike).

Faunal analysis indicates that people lived here from spring to late fall , although if the fall hunting resulted in stored reindeer meet, they could have spent part of the winter there as well. Ethnographic data show that a family of six needed 64 reindeer for the winter period (eight months) . If dogs were present, that number would have been significantly larger, although fish stockpiles were also used to feed dogs.

Coastal ASTt inhabitants -- at Iyatayet, Coffin, Walakpa, Cape Espenberg (KTZ- 325) -- according to the faunal remains and stone tool types, had a mixed subsistence style, hunting both maritime animals (mostly seals and, perhaps, walruses) and the terrestrial ones (caribou and, perhaps Muskox) . The lack of semisubterranean houses appears to indicate that these were seasonal settlements.

Assuming that people based their subsistence on the most accessible and productive resources, it is obvious to suggest that people started to (or continued to, after crossing the Bering Strait) engage in maritime hunting, perhaps using boat (kayaks) and harpoon technology. Triangular projectiles with notched bases are considered to be part of the harpoon technology , although harpoons are not necessary or even suitable for haul- out hunting on the shore. However, it is possible that spring hunting took place from the ice edge and required harpoon equipment.

The most accessible animals on the coast are those that haul out to rookeries on the shore. Even using the simple equipment (spears) without specialized harpoon toolkit and boats, people could have plenty of food for their daily needs, in addition to creating a significant stockpile for future (important during late fall and winter). In this respect, seals are the most accessible and could have been hunted not only on the shores but also on the ice in spring. The Cape Espenberg (KTZ-325) radiocarbon date of 4,100 ± 40 years indicates a very early maritime adaptation within ASTt .

In light of the general consensus that the ASTt and ceramic industry in Alaska originated from the Northeast Asian Neolithic cultures , it is unclear why ceramics are absent from the ASTt sites, while this artifact type is one of the chief characteristics of the Northeast Asian Neolithic . Powers and Jordan suggested that the Alaskan ASTt could be “.. .an aceramic variant of the Belkachi culture” .

Some Alaska sites contain ceramics associated with ASTt, such as Coffin, Walak- pa (Linear, Check stamp), Engigstciak, Firth River, Punyik Point (Cord-marked) ; the mixed character of these complexes casts doubt on the association of ceramics with the rest of the ASTt materials . For example, Griffin, after studying the Engigstciak and Firth River ceramics identified it as Norton .

The Southern ASTt sub-tradition, uncharacteristically for its original definition , demonstrates a distribution of the DFC south of the Bering Strait in the interior boreal forest, but has been found only at a few sites on the Alaska Peninsula, Kenai Peninsula and the Aleutian Islands . This distribution process was probably discrete in character. In the vast territory of the Yukon-Kuskokwim Lowland, from the Norton Sound with the Iyatayet site to the Alaska Peninsula, almost no ASTt sites are known, and the routes (continental or coastal) through which it spread south have not been discovered.

According to the C-14 dates, approximately 4220 years ago representatives of ASTt appear in this part of Alaska at Chugachik Island, not far from the Kenai Peninsula in the Kachemak Bay, as evidenced at SEL-03 3 . This is almost contemporaneous with the earliest DFC dates from the Arctic Alaskan sites, which brings us back to the question of the timing and routes of ASTt distribution in Alaska. In order to get to Kachemak Bay ASTt groups would have needed a certain amount of time to cross the area from Northwest Alaska through the Yukon-Kuskokwim delta on land or along the coast, using boats. If the reason for movement of (and exploration of new territories by) groups with an “appropriating” subsistence approach was resource depression of their range, then it would have taken them considerable time to cross these rich territories. Thus, the beginnings of the ASTt movement to the south and east from the Bering Strait should be extended back significantly.

The toolkit from Chugachik Island site demonstrates full consistency with the main ASTt tool types. Even with no faunal remains present, it is clear that the island inhabitants' subsistence activities were focused on hunting marine animals at sea. They most likely had boats. Some rare finds of small stone tools on Kodiak Island presumably indicate the spread of ASTt to the island .

The well-studied Alaska Peninsula sites, located approximately 20-60 km from the Bering Sea coast, along the shores of small salmon rivers Brooks and Ugashik, which enter Bristol Bay of the Bering Sea, are slightly younger. At these sites, researchers distinguish the Ugashik Hilltop Phase dated to 3900-3600 BP, and Brooks River Gravels Phase (Nak- nek drainage) dated to 3600-3100 BP, corresponding to the Gravels phase . Located on the terraces of shallow salmon streams, the sites confirm active use of fish resources (summer and fall salmon runs) by their inhabitants. This group might have had a diverse subsistence strategy since the hunting character of the toolkit indicates active use of terrestrial resources, facilitated by the Alaska Peninsula landscape favorable for caribou herds.

Contemporaneous with the last stage of the Gravels phase ASTt, an “island” or “coastal” variant of ASTt started developing on Unalaska Island in the Aleutian Islands (Margaret Bay Site). Its unique trait, in addition to the small chert tools similar to the ASTt assemblages, is a strong maritime adaptation represented by a developed sea mammal hunting strategy from boats in open water and from the ice, with such artifacts as a harpoon complex, stone lamps, netsinkers, composite hooks, and labrets, which indicates their connection with the ancient Aleut culture .

The toolkit at all these sites, although somewhat unique, in general matches the ASTt complex and includes: small lanceolate points with a narrower base (almost a stem); wide flat bifacially flaked insets for knives; meticulously worked end and side scrapers; small retouched adzes with polished edges; burins; burin spalls with polished edges; microblades. Unlike the northern ASTt sites (Denbigh complex), the southern sites of this tradition contain somewhat larger implements, have fewer microblades, not well shaped, and burins on microblades. Microblades were obtained from amorphous subprismatic cores and sometimes are absent altogether.

The sites are located in river valleys and next to lakes rich in fish during the salmon runs. Small hunting stone toolkit indicates that caribou hunting continued to be an important activity on the southern ASTt sites, but fishing and perhaps maritime hunting at Margaret Bay (Unalaska Island), and at SEL-033 were much more important for the inhabitants' subsistence needs than at the Denbigh Flint complex sites. Marine mammal bones, fish bones, and numerous salmon teeth support this conclusion. Inhabitants of these sites had long-term settlements with winter dwellings.

At the Brooks River site, around 100 of such dwellings presumably existed. Excavations show that they were sub-rectangular in shape, measured about 4 x 4 m, and were

0. 5 m deep, with a stone hearth (some hearths have a square shape and are constructed of flat stone slabs) in the center of the dwelling and an angled exit passage way. The frame of the dwelling was likely wooden, with posts at the base, and was probably covered with sod . Numerous salmon and trout bones and teeth, found in the houses, indicate that they were inhabited in summer and winter. It was noted that the shape of Gravels phase ASTt dwellings resembles the dwellings of the Norton tradition, which follows ASTt .

Margaret Bay site dwellings were semi-subterranean (about 1 m deep), oval in shape, approximately 6 m in diameter with stone walls, stone hearth boxes and other domestic objects .

East ASTt is found in the Arctic region of Canada (north of the treeline, Arctic Archipelago) and Greenland, and represents the earliest human settlement period of this part of the world. Humans reached this area after the ice shield had retreated, no later than 4,500 years ago.

Although some sites in the East Arctic date to around 5000 BP (for example Pre-Dorset ObPj-6 at Victoria Island dated to 5245 ± 42 [AA-40853] and TkAt-4 [Sojourn] at Ellesmere Island dated 4685 ± 70 (S-2423) or even 4900), they still require confirmation . Researchers posit that Central and East Arctic was inhabited from Alaska around 4500 BP .

Eastern ASTt consists of the following regional and chronological complexes: Independence I (High Arctic, Greenland, 4500-3600 years ago), Pre-Dorset (Central and East Arctic, 4500-2700 years ago) and Saqqaq (Greenland, 3900-2700 years ago).

Knuth, who described the Independence I Culture, Meldgaard, who described Saqqaq, and Collins, who described Pre-Dorset, noted the similarity between these cultures and Western ASTt . Ross suggested that Independence I and Pre-Dorset are

regional variations representing the same culture . Together with Western ASTt they were referred to as the Paleoeskimo culture , a concept put forward 100 years ago by H. P. Steensby .

The most characteristic complexes of this tradition are known today in Canada, at such sites as Lake View, Cape Storm Beaches, Kettle Lake, Camp View (Ellesmere Island); Closure, Mittimatalik, LdFa-1, 12, LeDx-42, Mosquito Ridge, Kapuivik, Parry Hill, Ann- awak, Shaymarc (Baffin Island); Port Refuge, Gneiss, Far Site, Icy Bay, Hind, Rocky Point (Devon Island); Buchanan, Wellington Bay (Victoria Island); Kaleruserk (Igloolik Island); Crane (Mackenzie Delta), Stanwell Fletcher Lake (Somerset Island); Bettison Point (Prince of Wales Island); Umingmak, Shoran Lake (Banks Island); Engigstciak, Dismal, Bloody Falls (Northwest Territories); Saglek Bay (Quebec). In Greenland, they include Qeqerta- sussuk, Deltaterrasserne, Saqqaq, Niivertussannguaq, Nipisat, Qajaa, Sermermiut, Tua- passuit, Tupersui, Nuussuaq, Pearylandville, Midternaes and others .

These complexes later gave the basis for the development of the Dorset culture (2600-700 (500) BP). Dorset is often viewed within the Eastern ASTt as the last stage of the Paleoeskimo culture, dating ASTt to 4500-1000 (500) BP . Not all researchers agree with this scheme; some archaeologists limit the ASTt timeframe to the existence of Denbigh, Independence I, Saqqaq and Pre-Dorset, i. e. to 4500-2500 years ago .

The archaeological record shows that the exploration of this territory was rather quick and intensive despite the low population numbers in the Arctic during that time, according to the general consensus. In the Canadian Arctic, around 1900 sites have been found (but the area has yet to be extensively covered by archaeologists), and in Greenland, just in the very north, at Peary Land, archaeologists have found 51 sites with remains of 244 dwellings . East Greenland's Saqqaq sites provide evidence of the first people in

Greenland using kayak-like vessels , so the migration may have to some extent relied on sailing in open waters during the warm months.

The Eastern ASTt toolkit in general, is compared by the researchers to the Denbigh Complex and consists of similar small tools with elaborate flaking (Fig. 5); it also has unique characteristics, for example, much better preservation of organic tools (bone, antler, and wood). It contains microblades, which were removed from the microblade cores of the same shape as those in the Denbigh Complex; burins (mitten-shape) and burins spalls removed from them, which were used as chisel tips to work on bone, antler, and wooden implements; end and side scrapers of various shape, including those with a side notch; retouched and polished burin spalls; awls; stemmed and lanceolate knives and spear points; flat triangular projectile tips, which were supposedly used to arm harpoons; and adzes with a slightly ground/polished edge .

During Pre-Dorset, people started using ground slate spearheads and insets , which were widely used during the following period (Dorset). We should note that there is a significant typological similarity between several Denbigh tools, described as «flake knives» and tools described in the Eastern ASTt as side scrapers .

Eastern ASTt sites contain a wide array of organic tools, which practically never preserve in the West ASTt sites. These tools include bone harpoons, leister prongs, serrated single- and double-row dart points, pressure flakers, sewing needles, bone and wood handles for burins and spalls, and bow fragments .

During the early stages of ASTt development (Independence I complex), serrated harpoons emerged, with a tanged base, flat wide hitch, non-toggling, with a space at the end for a stone end blade. At Qeqertasussuk researchers discovered over 50 toggling and tanged heads of harpoons . Later (Saqqaq and Pre-Dorset), in addition to the barbed harpoons, toggle harpoons, serrated, with an open socket for foreshaft, some with a groove for a stone side or end blade were developed .

In the continental regions, ASTt inhabitants hunted muskox, caribou, and to a lesser extent, arctic fox, hare, and polar bear. On the coast, they took seals, at the edge of the ice or at breathing holes, and walruses at their rookeries. Fragments of kayak-like watercraft indicate that in the summer people hunted marine animals, perhaps even whales, in open waters. Leisters point to fishing activities, and perhaps bird hunting. Plant foods were not a significant part of people's diet here. Meat was stored for the winter in stone-lined pits covered with stone plates .



Fig. 5. Stone and osseous (bone and antler) tool assemblage of Eastern tradition ASTt (1-41): 1-5, 37 -- osseon tools; 6, 12, 14, 16, 19, 24, 25, 27, 29, 35 -- points; 7, 31, 33, 39 -- side inserts; 8, 9, 30 -- “mitten-shaped” burins; 10, 15, 20, 38 -- scrapers; 11, 28, 32, 36, 40 -- knives; 13, 26 -- side scrapers; 17, 18 -- microblades; 21 -- corner burin; 22; 23 -- burin spalls; 34 -- side-notched knife; 41 -- microblade cores ([Redrawing after: 1-5 -- [Gronnow, 1994]; 6-40 -- [Maxwell, 1985])

Due to the nomadic lifestyle, people lived in mobile small single-family dwellings, with skins over the driftwood frame. According to the remains of such dwellings, their edges were held down by gravel, small cobbles, or, in winter, snow blocks. The dwellings contained stone “midpassages” and a central hearth, which separated the dwelling into a residential area and a work area. Box hearth was constructed from vertically set flat stone plates, with stone boxes at either side for various practical needs (fuel storage, meat thawing) . Researchers suppose that the Eastern ASTt dwellings were lit by stone lamps , although there is some doubt regarding their existence in that area . Several dwellings, housing up to six families, commonly formed a settlement .



Conclusion

The archaeological record shows, that the unique continental Belkachi culture of taiga hunters, which formed in the Lena River drainage around 5200 BP and whose roots appear to have been traced to the Transbaikalia , quickly spread to the east of the Verkhoyansk Range through the Kolyma region and Chukotka , all the way to the Bering Strait. The accumulated cultural energy allowed it to preserve its basic traits along the entire route, although, under the external or internal factors, certain aspects of it had changed, forming local Kolyma and Chukotka variants with their own unique characteristics.

The cultural impulse accumulated by this tradition allowed the Belkachi groups to transmit it across the narrow Bering Strait, separating Asia and North America, to Alaska, where it formed as a distinctive AST tradition with microblade cores, microblades, and a set of small chert insert tools . Archaeological and genetic data suggest that this event dates to no later than 5000 BP . Crossing the Bering Strait implies that they had boats, although the strait could have been crossed over ice.

On the American continent, the population of this tradition spread from Alaska to its entire Arctic region all the way to Greenland, just as fast, over a few hundred years. They settled in regions, which had not previously seen humans, and developed specific territorial complexes: Denbigh, Gravels, Pre-Dorset, Independence I, Saqqaq. These complexes demonstrate a superb adaptation of the inhabitants to interior and marine subsistence situations, with a developed harpoon complex and marine mammal hunting from boats in the open seas. The development of the classic ASTt concluded around 3000-2500 BP , but some of its features were preserved in the succeeding cultures, Choris and Norton in Alaska , and Dorset in Canada and Greenland .



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