The eastern frontier of the Gravettian in the Kostenki-Borshchevo palaeolithic locality, the Don basin, Russia

A series of small backed lanceolate points with either dorsal straight or arcuate truncations on one and less often both ends (Anosovka points) gives a peculiarity to the complex. Another peculiarity is the small tool size (up to ~3 cm) and the blank type: they are made on shortened sub-triangular bladelets and lamellar flakes (Fig. 6: B, 1-17). Their dimensions are caused not by the blank standardization, but by an intense edge backing combined with truncation of the point ends. Actually, such tools should be attributed to geometric microliths.

Fig. 6. Kostenki 11, the second cultural layer:

A - the excavations and testpits scheme. Areas of the cultural reamains spread are hatched. ND - the north dwelling, SD - the south dwelling; B - the stone assemblage [Sinitsyn, 2013; Popov & Pustovalov, 2004]

Bone artefacts are represented by two points with heads which resemble animal faces. Kostenki 11/II complex also features a number of art objects, namely, a series of miniature marl figurines (over 100 items) with a flattened base, some of which are quite recognizable (mammoth, woolly rhinocerous, bison).

The complex does not have comprehensive analogies in the Gravettian industries, but in some aspects, it is similar to various East European sites. Zoomorphic marl figurines in KBR sites resemble Kostenki 1/I, Kostenki 4, Kostenki 9 Abramova Z. A. Izobrazheniia zhivotnykh s paleoliticheskoi stoianki Aleksandrovka // Kratkie soobshcheniia Instituta arkheologii. 1961. Iss. 82. P. 97-103; Rogachev A. N. Anosovka II -- novaia mnogosloinaia stoianka v Kostenkakh. P. 86-96; Anikovich M. V. K probleme sinkhronizatsii nekotorykh pozdnepaleoliticheskikh pamiatnikov Kostenkovsko-Borshchevskogo raiona // Kratkie soobshcheniia Instituta arkheologii. 1983. Iss. 173. P. 16-31., while backed tools and tools with truncated ends remind of Kostenki 21/III, as well as Pushkari 1 and Klyussi in the Desna region Sinitsyn A. A. K probleme kul'turnoi prinadlezhnosti Pushkarei 1 // Problemy arkheologii epokhi kamnia: k 70-letiiu Valentiny Ivanovny Beliaevoi: sbornik nauchnykh statei. St. Petersburg, 2014. P. 234-244. (Trudy istoricheskogo fakul'teta Sankt-Peterbgskogo universiteta. Vol. 18).. A specific feature of Kostenki 11/II inventory is the lack of signs indicating microblade blank production combined with mass production of microliths. By this criterion, Anosovka complex is similar to the Byki 1 and Byki 7/I-Ia sites in the Seym area with their triangular microliths (the beginning of the late stage of the Upper Palaeolithic, 17000-15000 yr uncal BP). It should be noted that N.B. Akhmetgaleyeva Akhmetgaleeva N. B. Kamennyi vek Poseimia: verkhnepaleoliticheskaia stoianka Byki 7. Kursk, 2015. P. 181-184. attributes this industry not to the Gravettian, but to the Magdalenian cultural cluster. According to the combination of features, the inventory of Anosovka corresponds most fully to materials of Kostenki 21/III. However, surprisingly, these parallels are limited only to some local areas of the latter site and are not represented in others.

Kostenki 21 (Gmelinskaia encampment) is a site discovered by N.D. Praslov in 1956 on the first terrace of the Don. Total area uncovered in 1950-70s. exceeds 500 m². Within the terrace composed of loess-like loams, three cultural layers were revealed, of which the best studied one is the lower one, connected to the Gravettian Praslov N. D. Gmelinskaia stoianka v Kostenkakh // Kratkie soobshcheniia Instituta arkheologii. 1964. Iss. 97. P. 59-63; Paleolit Kostenkovsko-Borshchevskogo raiona na Donu... P. 198-209..

Judging by separate finds clusters, six household complexes (I-VI) were determined, spread over ~200 m along the riverside (Fig. 7: A). Four of them are thought to be remains of dwellings. Both complex I and the southern complex II are interpreted as production centers for flint knapping and tool manufacturing. These complexes are interspaced with cultural layer sections having relatively sparse finds. The inventory of Anosovka type is associated exclusively with dwelling features (Fig. 7: B).

Remains of dwellings are represented by lenses of ash mass clusters, stone artefacts, bones and ocher Ivanova M. A. Zhiloi kompleks Gmelinskoi pozdnepaleoliticheskoi stoianki v Kostenkakh // Kratkie soobshcheniia Instituta arkheologii. 1981. Iss. 165. P. 37-42.. In the plan, they have a circular-oval shape and occupy an area of 10-16 mm². Three of them had deepened hearths. Near one of the dwellings (the northern complex), limestone tiles contoured the remains of a structure from the eastern and southern sides. The stone tool collection found in the dwellings (n ~ 2700) amounts to 271 tools. The most numerous and expressive types are backed vertically retouched points and blades (Anosovka points), as well as knife-shaped blades with transverse and oblique truncated ends (see Fig. 7: B, 1-6). These are followed by burins, including burins on retouched truncation and multiple ones, in addition to scrapers. Osseous inventory is represented by fragments of three points and adornments such as oval pendants made of mammoth tusk. Overall, the inventory is identical to the finds of Kostenki 11/II, except for the absence of marl figurines.

Artefacts found in manufacturing complexes of Kostenki 21/III differ dramatically both from the toolkit found at the site of dwelling and from Kostenki 11/II inventory by the knapping technique, as well as the tools types (see Fig. 7: B). The collection has pronounced Gravettian features given a large number of microblades and tools on microblades, with shouldered points and numerous ivory and bone tools. According to M.N. Ivanova and N.D. Praslov Ivanova M.A.: 1) Zhiloi kompleks Gmelinskoi pozdnepaleoliticheskoi stoianki v Kostenkakh; 2) Struktura Gmelinskogo paleoliticheskogo poseleniia (po rezultatam planigraficheskogo i tipologichesko- go analiza kremnevogo inventaria). Avtoref. dis. ... kand. ist. nauk. Leningrad, 1985; Paleolit Kostenkovsko- Borshchevskogo raiona na Donu. P. 209., such differences can be explained by specifics of activity taking place in dwellings and on tool production areas.

M.V. Anikovich and V.V. Popov united the finds of the second cultural layer of Kostenki 11 with those of the lower layer on the Gmelinskaia site, and with the scarce inventory of Kostenki 5/III under the term of Anosovka-Gmelinskaia archeological culture, proposing an alternative interpretation of the typological differences between sites. They believe such differences could be caused by the seasonal character of habitatation - a winter settlement on Kostenki 11/II and a summer settlement on Kostenki 21/III Anikovich M. V., Popov V. V., Platonova N. I. Paleolit Kostenkovsko-Borshchevskogo raiona v kontekste verkhnego paleolita Evropy. S. 205-206.. From my point of view, such explanation is unsubstantiated since it is based solely on the presence of bone coal in the dwellings of Kostenki 11/II in contrast to Kostenki 21/ III, where charcoal prevailed.

It should be noted that in Kostenki 21/III the finds clusters of two different cultures were found in alternating deposition. Their appearance is not connected to the presence or absence of various household structures of habitation or seasonal character of settlement. Palimpsest cultural layers with separate clusters, left by single - or multi-cultural population groups, are quite common for the Neolithic-Mesolithic sites. The same is true for the KBR at sites of the first terrace of the Don (Kostenki 4, Kostenki 21, Borshche - vo 1 and 2). Thus, artefacts of the lower layer of the Gmelinskaia site should be divided into two cultural complexes - Anosovka («dwellings») and Gmelinskaia («manufacturing features»). Therefore, each of these groups becomes typologically accurate and can be described within a specific cultural and archaeological context.

Gmelinskaia complex (Kostenki 21/III - production areas)

Kostenki 21/III production complexes are characterized by a large area (40 and ~80 m² respectively). These are long lenses of a cultural layer with ash spots and high concentration of finds. At least one open hearth was documented in complex I, while in complex II no hearths were found. Stone tool collections amount to n ~ 7,500 for complex I and n ~ 24,000 for complex II. The number of artefacts with secondary treatment is quite significant (n > 1000).

In production complexes, as opposed to the dwelling sites, the main tool blanks were regular blades and microblades (> 50% of all the items). There are predominantly dihedral burins or burins on retouched truncation found in the collection. Backed points are miniature and are of a microlithoid appearance. Backed microblades have a sharpened or natural end (see Fig. 7: B, 1-7). Shouldered points (n > 100) make up an expressive category. In contrast to the Kostenki-Avdeevo points, the notch does not exceed half of the blank length (see Fig. 7: B, 10-13, 19). Bone tools vary - they comprise a series of ivory points, awls, an eyed needle, several flounder-shaped pendants and a pendant made of a reindeer canine tooth. Rare items include an ivory «shaft straightener» with a fir-tree ornament, as well as an item that is interpreted as a handle. Apart from that, there are two unique engravings of zoomorphic images on stone discs Paleolit Kostenkovsko-Borshchevskogo raiona na Donu... P. 208-209..

Fig. 7. Kostenki 21, the lower cultural layer: A - excavations and testpits scheme (I and II - «manufacturing» complexes; III through VI - «dwelling» complexes); B - stone assemblage of the complex IV; C - stone assemblage of the complex II (modified from: Paleolit Kostenkovsko-Borshchevskogo raiona na Donu… 1982)

gravette paleolithic cultural monument

During the recent work of A.A. Bessudnov, the remains of two more lenses with flint inventory corresponding to the toolkit of «production centers» were found on Kosten - ki 21. In my opinion, a wide distribution of Gmelinskaia type finds, including those in the newly unearthed areas, confirms that they are not simply functional, but bear an independent cultural character Bessudnov A. A. Issledovaniia III kul'turnogo sloia Kostenok 21 v khode spasatel'nykh rabot 2013-2014 gg. // Novye materialy i metody arkheologicheskogo issledovaniia. Materialy III Mezhdunarodnoi konferentsii molodykh uchenykh. Moscow, 2015. P. 10-12..

Parallels to the Gmelinskaia complex can be drawn at Gagarino site on the upper Don Tarasov L. M. Gagarinskaia stoianka i ee mesto v paleolite. Moscow, 1979.. The Gmelinskaia complex is similar to the industry of Gagarino due to a pronounced microlithoid character of flint tools, the use of blades and their fragments to make tools, a combination of burins on retouched truncation and dihedral burins of similar morphology, besides a series of shouldered points on microblades with the notch taking up half of the blank length.

The same features unite Kostenki 21/III and Khotylevo 2 on the Desna. The Gagarino site has even more common features with the latter one: Kostenki type knives, bone and ivory tools and art objects, including typical female figurines Gavrilov K. N.: 1) Tipologiia kamennykh orudii i kulturnaia prinadlezhnost' Khotylevskoi verkhnepaleoliticheskoi stoianki // Problemy kamennogo veka Russkoi ravniny. Moscow, 2004. P. 262-284; 2) Verkhnepaleoliticheskaia stoianka Khotylevo 2. Moscow, 2008; 3) Migratsiia, diffuziia, razvitie? K voprosu o proiskhozhdenii vostochnogo gravetta na Russkoi ravnine. P. 29-50.. Differences between the Gmelinskaia and Khotylevo-Gagarino toolkits are mostly negative. For instance, the Kostenki 21/III site has practically no ventral retouching on tools. Some tool types characteristic of the Eastern Gravettian are absent from the toolkit. This difference is also reinforced by the absence of specific bone and ivory items and typical design elements.

Nevertheless, the Gmelinskaia complex is closer to the classic sites of the Eastern Gravettian than any other Gravettian complexes in Kostenki, which are not immediately connected to the Kostenki-Avdeevo culture. In the Gmelinskaia industry, distinguishing feautures are miniature shouldered points, having prototypes in the Eastern Gravettian. In this regard, the Gmelinskaia complex can be seen as a borderline that separates the Gravettian sensu lato from the Epigravettian.

Stratigraphy and geomorphological correlation

The KBR Gravettian sites are associated with the so-called loess-like loam uppermost bed, which completes the local Pleistocene sedimentation column. The only exception could be Kostenki 8/II horizon, enclosed in the horizon of a reduced upper humus stratum, directly covered by loess-like loam. The upper humus stratum is usually compared with the Bryansk paleosoil, and in the KBR it is considered isochronous to 32-28 ky BP (uncal).

However, according to the latest research of Kostenki 8, younger datings of 23.3 and 25.6 ky BP (uncal) were obtained for the second cultural layer. Therefore, cautious doubts are being voiced concerning the orthodox view on the age of the enclosing horizon Dudin A. E., Pustovalov A. Yu., Platonova N. I. Vtoroi kul'turnyi sloi stoianki Kostenki-8 (Telman- skaia): struktura, ob'ekty mikrostratigrafii. P. 41-52.. I believe the «humus content» can be explained by the presence of washed-out hearth structures containing charcoal and ash, and not by association with this very stratum. Regardless, it can be argued that the majority of the KBR Gravettian settlements existed during the cold cycle of loess sedimentation corresponding to the final phase of the middle Weichselian glaciation.

Buried soils may be used as additional stratigraphic markers to divide the loess-like bed into parts. Episodes of soil formation, which are associated with the Gravettian cultural layers, have been repeatedly recorded. In particular, up to four ephemeral fossil soils can be distinguished in the Kostenki 14 loess member, of which the two lower ones are associated with Gravettian finds Sedov S. N., Khokhlova O. S., Sinitsyn A. A., Korkka M. A., Rusakov A. V., Ortega B., Solleiro E., Rozanova M. S., Kuznetsova A. M., Kazdym A. A. Pozdnepleistotsenovye paleopochvennye serii kak instru-ment lokalnoi paleogeograficheskoi rekonstruktsii (na primere razreza Kostenki 14) // Pochvovedenie. 2010. No. 8. P. 938-955; Sinitsyn A. A. Kostenki 14 (Markina gora) -- opornaia kolonka kul'turnykh i geologicheskikh otlozhenii paleolita Vostochnoi Evropy dlia perioda 27-42 tys. l. n. // Drevnie kul'tury Vostochnoi Evropy: etalonnye pamiatniki i opornye kompleksy v kontekste sovremennykh arkheo- logicheskikh issledovanii. Zamiatninskii sbornik. Iss. 4. St. Petersburg, 2015. P. 40-59.. Two levels of soil formation were recorded on Borshchevo 5, and both contain Gravettian artefacts. At least one distinct paleosoil (the Gmelin one) can be distinguished at the level of the Gravettian layer bedding on Kostenki 1, Kosten - ki 21 and, possibly, on Kostenki 11 Paleolit Kostenkovsko-Borshchevskogo raiona na Donu... P 116; Popov V. V., Pustovalov A. Yu. Poselenie 2-go kulturnogo sloia stoianki Kostenki 11 (Anosovka 2). P 3-8; Hoffecker J. F., Holliday V. T., Anikovich M. V., Dudin A. E., Platonova N. I., Popov V. V., Levkovskaya G. M., Kuz'mina I. E., Syromyatnikova E. V., Burova N. D., Goldberg P., Macphail R. I., Forman S. L., Carter B. J., Crawford L. J. Kostenki 1 and the early Upper Paleolithic of Eastern Europe // Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports. 2016. Vol. 5. P 307-326..

Chronology and periodization

Over a hundred datings have been obtained on samples from the KBR Gravettian cultural layers. Almost half of them comes from the upper cultural layer of Kostenki 1. Datings on bone samples are prevalent. Existing 14C datings, in average uncalibrated values, determine the period of existence of the KBR Gravettian from ~27,000 (Kostenki 8/II) to ~21,000 yr BP (Kostenki 21/III). Effectively, in a series of datings, they vary for almost each site, providing an opportunity to demonstrate one's chronological preferences and choose a specific timepoint accordingly. The most reliable method for development of the Kostenki Gravettian periodization is to examine certain complexes in comparison to the Gravettian sites of other regions and see if they mutually correlate. In accordance with common European ideas on periodization of the Upper Paleolithic, the KBR Gravettian can be divided into the early period of 27,000-25,000 yr uncal BP, the middle one of 25,000-24,000 yr uncal BP, and the late one of23,000-21,000 yr uncal BP. Given a common archaeological context of the identified KBR Gravettian cultural groups with the sites of Eastern and Central Europe, as well as the compliance of datings, we can determine the cultural and chronological succession of these complexes (Table).

The périodisation and chronology of the Gravettian assemblages in the Kostenki-Borshchevo locality

^a Paleolit Kostenkovsko-Borshchevskogo raiona na Donu. 1879-1979: nekotorye itogi polevykh issledovanii / ed. by N.D. Praslov, A.N. Rogachev. Leningrad, 1982.

^b Reynolds N., Lisitsyn S.N., Sablin M.V., Barton N., Higham T.F.G. Chronology of the European Russian Gravettian: new radiocarbon dating results and interpretation // Quartär. Vol. 62. 2015. P. 121-132.

^c Dudin A.E., Pustovalov A. Iu., Platonova N.I. Vtoroi kul'turnyi sloi stoianki Kostenki-8 (Tel - manskaia): struktura, ob'ekty mikrostratigrafii // Vestnik NGU. Seriia. Istoriia, filologiia. Vol. 15, no. 3. Arkheologiia i etnografiia. Novosibirsk, 2016. P. 41-52.

^d Sinitsyn A.A., Praslov N.D., Svezhentsev Yu. S., Sulerzhitskii L.D. Radiouglerodnaia khrono - logiia paleolita Vostochnoi Evropy // Radiouglerodnaia khronologiia paleolita Vostochnoi Evropy i Severnoi Azii: problemy i perspektivy / eds A.A. Sinitsyn, N.D. Praslov. St. Petersburg, 1997. P. 21-66.

^e Sinitsyn A.A. Les sépultures de Kostenki: chronologie, attribution culturelle, rite funéraire // La Spiritualité: Actes du colloque de la commission 8 de l'UISPP (Paléolithique supérieur), Liège, 10-12 décembre 2003. Études et Recherches Archéologiques de l'Université de Liège / ed. by M. Otte. Liège, 2004. P. 237-244.

^f Zheltova M.N. Kostenkovskie stoianki pervoi nadpoimennoi terrasy: varianty adaptatsii k okruzhaiushchei srede verkhnego pleistotsena // Problemy biologicheskoi i kul'turnoi adaptatsii chelo - vecheskikh populiatsii: sbornik statei, posviashchennyi 100-letiiu so dnia rozhdeniia M.M. Gerasimova. Vol. 1. Arkheologiia. Adaptatsionnye strategii drevnego naseleniia Severnoi Evrazii: syre i priemy obrabotki / ed. by G.A. Khlopachev. St. Petersburg, 2008. P. 48-52.

^g Lisitsyn S.N. Khronostratigrafiia i arkheologiia stoianki Borshchevo 5 po dannym raskopok 2002-2003 gg. // Kostenki i ranniaia pora verkhnego paleolita Evrazii: obshchee i lokalnoe. Materialy Mezhdunarodnoi konferentsii. Kostenki, 23-26 avgusta, 2004 / eds M.V. Anikovich, N.I. Platonova. Voronezh, 2004. P. 66-79.

^h Anikovich M.V., Popov V.V., Platonova N.I. Paleolit Kostenkovsko-Borshchevskogo raiona v kontekste verkhnego paleolita Evropy / ed. by M.V. Anikovich. St. Petersburg, 2008.

ⁱ Sinitsyn A.A. Preryvistost i preemstvennost v paleolite Kostenok // Verkhnedonskoi arkheolo - gicheskii sbornik. Iss. 6 / ed. by A.N. Bessudnov. Lipetsk, 2014. P. 66-76

^j Sinitsyn A.A. K probleme kul'turnoi prinadlezhnosti Pushkarei 1 // Problemy arkheologii epo - khi kamnia: k 70-letiiu Valentiny Ivanovny Beliaevoi: sbornik nauchnykh statei. St. Petersburg, 2014. P. 234-244. (Trudy istoricheskogo fakul'teta Sankt-Peterbgskogo universiteta. Vol. 18)

^k Reynolds N., Dinnis R., Bessudnov A., Devièse T., Higham T. The Kostënki 18 child burial and the cultural and funerary landscape of Mid Upper Palaeolithic European Russia // Antiquity. 2017. Vol. 91, iss. 360. P. 1435-1450.

Conclusion

Archaeological unity of the Gravettian sites is synstadial in character, which is expressed by common features of inventory and technological basis, and, potentially, by the type of economic adaptation caused by cooling and aridization of the climate. It seems the reasons behind cultural diversity of the KBR Gravettian should be attributed to favorable environmental conditions of this local area to arrange encampment settlements Lisitsyn S. N. Epokha gravetta v Kostenkakh: kul'turnaia istoriia i paleolandshaft // Puti evoliutsionnoi geografii: materialy Vserossiiskoi nauchnoi konferentsii, posviashchennoi pamiati professora A. A. Velichko. Moscow, 2016. P. 687-692..

Taking into account European archealogical context, cultural differentiation of the Kostenki Gravettian takes form of a relatively orderly periodization. Cultural complexes can be distinguished by distinct features of material culture. They are linked to different chronological episodes and have corresponding analogies among the sites of Eastern and Central Europe.

The first manifestation of the Gravettian ~ 27,000-25,000 yr uncal BP was marked by the emergence of a population group with the Kostenki 8/II industry type in the basin of the Don river. The second wave of settlers (25,000-24,000 yr uncal BP), associated with the Pavlovian, shaped the Aleksandrovka complex belonging to the middle Gravettian. The Gravettian succession in the KBR is completed by the Kostenki-Avdeevo complex (23,000-22,000 yr uncal BP). It is possible that the peak of cooling after 21,000 yr uncal BP led to the emergence of local industries of Anosovka and Gmelin type. The latter largely inherits Gravettian traditions, while Anosovka type belongs to a different line of cultural development.

People of the Gravettian era occupied the Don basin in waves, settling in the tundra-steppe landscape zone, which on the eve of the glacial maximum united the territories of Central and Eastern Europe into a single ecosystem. At the same time, no signs of mixing or hybridization of various generations of the KBR Gravettian may indicate that the waves of these populations followed each other consequently, which leaves open the question if there were any direct contacts between them.

References

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