Quartz assemblage from the early mesolithic Helvetinhaudanpuro settlement site in Eastern Central Finland

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Institute of History and Archaeology, University of Tartu

Quartz assemblage from the early mesolithic Helvetinhaudanpuro settlement site in Eastern Central Finland

T. Rostedt MA, freelance archaeologist, Peltokatu

A. Kriiska PhD, Professor

Turku, Finland

Tartu, Estonia



Research of the occupation in the eastern shores of the Baltic Sea areas has been vivid over the last centuries and it has had different perspectives and thematic ranges. In this paper we present a overview of the history of Stone Age quartz research in Finland and general quartz working techniques and, above all, some results considering analysis of the quartz material from the Early Mesolithic settlement site of Helvetinhaudanpuro in Finland. It is surprising how little in archaeology has been paid attention to the changes in the variations of lithic technologies when groups of people moved from one area to another. If there were not any possibilities to use familiar stone materials as a technological starting point, adaptation to new materials was essential. In the lithic material of Helvetinhaudanpuro we detected characteristics connected to adaptation from flint to the local quartz. The shift in raw materials took place within a few hundred years and appears to coincide with the change in social networks related to the break in connections with previous habitation areas. The quartz techniques seen in Helvetinhaudanpuro are similar to those from other Finnish Mesolithic sites; bipolar technique dominates, but platform percussion has also been in use to some extent. There are some aspects in this material that are unusual, even special, and more compatible to flint than quartz technology: Helvetinhaudanpuro-type points, inserts and possible use of pressure flaking in some cases. These tool shapes and technical achievement indicate a deeper socio-cultural background and are a distinctive link between flint and quartz knapping technology.

Keywords: Early Mesolithic, Finland, quartz, lithic techniques.



Кварцевая индустрия из раннемезолитического поселения Хельветинхауданпуро на востоке центральной Финляндии

Т. Ростедт независимый исследователь (археология), Финляндия, Турку

А. Крийска -- д-р философии (археология), проф. лабораторной археологии, Институт истории и археологии, Университет Тарту, Эстония, Тарту

Изучение первичного заселения восточных берегов Балтийского моря на протяжении последних столетий осуществлялось весьма активно. Были исследованы различные аспекты и этапы этого процесса. В статье приведен обзор истории изучения вопросов использования кварца в каменном веке Финляндии, общих методов обработки этого материала, а также представлены результаты анализа кварцевого материала раннемезолитического поселения Хельветинхауданпуро в Финляндии. История изучения проблематики использования кварца показывает, как мало в археологии уделялось внимания вариациям каменных технологий при перемещении групп людей из одного района в другой. При невозможности использования известного каменного сырья и знакомой технологии возникала необходимость в приспособлении к новому материалу. В каменном материале Хельветинхауданпуро мы выделили характеристики, указывающие на адаптацию технологий обработки кремня к местному сырью -- кварцу. Переход к другому виду сырья осуществлялся в течение нескольких сотен лет и, веротятно, совпал с социальными изменениями, обусловленными разрывом контактов с предыдущими районами обитания. Техники обработки кварца, наблюдаемые в Хельветинхауданпуро, очень похожи на техники других мезолитических стоянок Финляндии. Среди них доминировала биполярная, но в некоторой степени использовалась и площадочная техника. В находках на этой территории отмечаются уникальные особенности, более характерные для кремневых, чем для кварцевых технологий, среди них -- острия типа хельветинхауданпуро и вкладыши, а в некоторых случаях, вероятно, использовалась отжимная техника расщепления. Эти формы орудий и технические достижения, возможно, имеют более глубокие социальные и культурные причины и являются отличительной чертой, связывающей технологии расщепления кремня и кварца.

Ключевые слова: ранний мезолит, Финляндия, кварц, техники обработки камня.



Introduction

The earliest inhabitants of Finland appear to have easily adopted quartz as a raw material for manufacturing small tools. Since Finland do not have natural sources of flint, it was necessary for the settlers to find a substitute for this material. It is possible that the fast transition to utilise quartz was also influenced by previous contacts with the material that had been used before arriving in Finland. However, the proportion of quartz in Early Mesolithic settlement sites within the “flint zone” remains extremely low. For instance, quartz makes up only 0.7 % of the lithics found in the Early Mesolithic site of Pulli in Estonia Jussila T., Kriiska A., Rostedt T. The Mesolithic Settlement in NE Savo, Finland and the earliest Settlement in the Eastern Baltic Sea // Acta Archaeologica. 2007. Vol. 78, iss. 2, fig. 12..

This early period of change in lithic raw materials is observable, among other things, in the characteristic features of the Finnish quartz percussion techniques.

Considering the abundance of quartz artefacts from Finnish Stone Age and Bronze Age settlement sites, it seems strange that during more than a hundred years of research, only relatively little attention has been paid to this mineral. From the 2000 onward, there has been an increasing interest in the technological characteristics of quartz knapping. In Finland, the new pioneers of quartz technology include, first and foremost, Tuija Rankama and Jarmo Kankaanpaa. They continue the inspection of quartz from where Ville Luho and Ari Siiriainen decades ago concluded. Their persistent research and analysis of quartz technology awoke the field from a long slumber, and new articles on the topic are published by various researchers almost annuallyRankama T. Ala-Jalve. Spatial, technological, and behavioral analyses of the lithic assemblage from a Stone Age Early Metal Age site in Utsjoki, Finnish Lapland // British Archaeological Reports, International Series. Vol. 681. Oxford, 1997; Takala H. The Ristola Site in Lahti and the Earliest Postglacial Settlement of South Finland. Jyvaskyla, 2003; Kankaanpaa J. & Rankama T. Early Mesolithic Pioneers in Northern Finnish Lappland // Pioneer Settlements and Colonization Processes in the Barents Region // Vuollerim Papers on Hunter-Gatherer Archaeology. Vol. 1 / ed. by H. Knutsson. Vuollerim 6000 Ar: Vuollerim, 2005. P. l09-161; Jussila T., Kriiska A., Rostedt T. The Mesolithic Settlement in NE Savo, Finland and the earliest Settlement in the Eastern Baltic Sea // Acta Archaeologica. 2007. Vol. 78, iss. 2. P. 143-162; Rankama T., Kankaanpaa J. Eastern arrivals in post-glacial Lappland: The Sujala site 10 000 cal BP // Antiquity. 2008. Vol. 82. P. 884-900; Tallavaara M., Manninen M. A., Hertell E. & Rankama T. How flakes shatter. A critical evaluation of Quartz fracture analysis // Journal of Archaeological Science. 2010. Vol. 37. P. 2442-2448; Hertell E., Tallavaara M. High Mobility or Gift Exchange: early Mesolithic chipped lithics in Southern Finland // Mesolithic interfaces: Variability in lithic technologies in eastern Fennoscandia / ed. by T. Rankama. Saarijarvi, 2011. P. 11-41; Jussila T., Kriiska A., Rostedt T. Saarenoja 2 -- An Early Mesolithic Site in South-Eastern Finland: Preliminary Results and Interpretations of Studies Conducted in 2000 and 2008-10 // Fennoscandia archaeological. 2012. Vol. XXIX. P. 3-27; Manninen M. A. Culture, Behavior and the 8200 cal BP Cold Event. Organisational Change and Culture-environmental Dynamics in Late Mesolithic Northern Fennoscandia. Vol. 4. Helsinki. 2014; Manninen M. A., Knuttson K. Lithic raw material diversification as an adaptive strategy -- Technology, mobility and site structure in Late Mesolithic northern mosts Europe // Journal of Athropological Archaeology. 2014. Vol. 33. P. 84-98..

Fig. 1. Sites mentioned in the text. Finland: 1 -- Juankoski Helvetinhaudanpuro; 2 -- Utsjoki Sujala; 3 -- Yli-Ii Kie- rikinsaari; 4 -- Alavus Ojalankangas; 5 -- Urjala Palomaki; 6 -- Lahti Ristola; 7 -- Eno Jokivarsi 1; 8-9 -- Lappeenranta Saarenoja 2 and Muilamaki, Estonia; 10 -- Kunda Lammasmagi; 11 -- Pulli, Russia; 12 -- Veshevo 2 and 13 -- Lotova Gora (Map based on [Jussila et al., 2007, fig. 1] and Tapani Rostedt)

For a long time, quartz was a relatively underappreciated lithic material. Experimental studies have shown that the fracture properties of quartz are not even close to those of flint and therefore flint knapping techniques cannot be directly applied to quartzLuho V. Die Askola-Kultur. Die fruhmesolitische Steinzeit in Finnland. (Suomen Muinaismuisto- yhdistyksen Aikakauskirja. Vol. 57. Helsinki. 1956. P. 116-117; Siiriainen A. Problems of the East Fennos- candian Mesolithic. Finskt Museum 1977. Helsinki, 1981. P. 14-15; see also: Rankama T. Ala-Jalve. Spatial, technological, and behavioral analyses of the lithic assemblage from a Stone Age Early Metal Age site in Utsjoki, Finnish Lapland. (British Archaeological Reports, International Series. Vol. 681). Oxford, 1997.. The fracture properties of quartz, and especially its tendency to shatter when struck, no doubt create challenges for research, but we believe that general trends can still be observed. Formal percussion techniques have usually been the main subject in quartz technology studies. These rely on the assumption that mobility and the low availability of well-flaking lithics have caused simplification of earlier percussion techniquesSee e. g. Knutsson H., Knutsson K., Molin F., Zetterlund P. From flint to quartz: Organisation of lithic technology in relation to raw material availability during the pioneer process of Scandinavia // Quaternary International. 2016. Vol. 424. P. 32-57.. Generally, research on quartz knapping techniques has been rather moderate in the last decades and new interpretations regarding knapping traditions have not appeared.

This article sets three main aims: 1) to give an overview of the history of quartz research in Finland; 2) to discuss general techniques used when working with quartz, and above all 3) to present the results of analysis of the quartz material from the Early Mesolithic settlement site of Helvetinhaudanpuro in Juankoski. Notably, it is possible to observe some distinctive features in the quartz percussion technique in the Helvetinhaudanpuro material, a fact that might give a reason to look for similarities in other assemblages in thefuture. Based on a thorough analysis and comparative studies of the lithics from different settlement sites, it appears that the percussion techniques used by the pioneer settlers, who arrived in what is now modern-day Finland, initially incorporated `memories' of previous stone-working techniques into quartz knapping. Later, the percussion techniques were simplified to an extent, but the function of tools remained the same for some time. Thus, the manufacturing technique was simplified due to the percussion properties of quartz, while simultaneously the tools became more multifunctional.

Previously, conducting long-term analysis was more complicated because the quartzes found in multi-period settlement sites did not necessarily represent only one period of occupation. Over the last decade the situation has changed for the better because more studies have been conducted on Early Mesolithic sites that were in use for a relatively short period of time. At the same time, reference material for specific time periods in Finland has increased, and the results are more accurateJussila T., Kriiska A., Rostedt T.: 1) Varhaismesoliittisesta asutuksesta Koillis-Savossa -- alustavia tu- loksia Juankosken Akonpohjan Helvetinhaudanpuron asuinpaikan kiviaineistosta // Arkeologia ja kulttuuri. Uutta kivikauden tutkimuksessa. Arkeologipaivat. 2005. Hamina, 2006. P 50-61; 2) The mesolithic Settlement in NE Savo, Finland and the earliest Settlement in the Eastern Baltic Sea // Acta Archaeologica. 2007. Vol. 78, iss. 2. P. 143-162; 3) Saarenoja 2 -- An Early Mesolithic Site in South-Eastern Finland: Preliminary Results and Interpretations of Studies Conducted in 2000 and 2008-10 // Fennoscandia archaeological. 2012. Vol. XXIX. P 3-27; Kankaanpaa J., Rankama T. Spatial Patterns of the Early Mesolithic Sujala Site. Utsjoki, Finnish Lappland // Mesolithic interfaces: Variability in lithic technologies in eastern Fennoscandia. Saar- ijarvi, 2011. P 42-63; Rankama T., Kankaanpaa J. Fast or slow pioneers? A view from Northern Lappland. Lateglacial and Postglacial Pioneers in Northern Europe // British Archaeological Reports, International Series. Vol. 2599. Oxford, 2014. P 147-160; Kriiska A., Rostedt T., Jussila T. The Development of Early Mesolithic Social Networks During the Settlement of Virgin Lands in the Eastern Baltic Sea Region- Interpreted through Comparison of Two Sites in Finland // Comparative Perspectives on Past Colonisation, Maritime Interaction and Cultural Integration (New Directions in Anthropological Archaeology) / eds L. Melheim, H. Glorstad and Z. Glorstad. South Yorkshire, 2016. P 19-40.. The relatively short occupation period at Helvetinhaudanpuro adds credibility to the quartz assemblage from the site.



History of quartz studies in Finland

In the early days of lithic technological studies in Europe in the 19^th century, research was driven by general developments in archaeology: the birth of periodization, typology, and borrowing from the natural sciences. The creation of Palaeolithic periodization was of utmost importance: the evolution of lithic technology from fewer complexes to more complex types and to knapping techniques requiring the production of a core. The focus in lithic technology was on flint. Quartz was different, marginalised, and had almost no effect on the general study of lithic. It did not play a notable role even in areas such as Finland, where quartz was basically the only lithic raw material used for making small tools. finland helvetinhaudanpuro mesolithic

The fact that quartz was underappreciated in the early days of archaeology in Finland can be confirmed by the lack of systematic collection of the material during excavations. More attention to finding, collecting and studying quartz was paid from 1910 onward. Although Julius AilioAilio J. Die Steinzeitliche Wohnplatzfunde in Finland I-II. Helsingfors, Kommission bei der Akademischen Buchhandlung, 1909. [1909] described quartz material to some extent in his dissertation, Sakari Palsi is considered the forerunner of quartz studies in FinlandLuho V. Die Askola-Kultur. Die fruhmesolitische Steinzeit in Finnland. (Suomen Muinaismuistoyh- distyksen Aikakauskirja. Vol. 57). Helsinki, 1956. P 16; Luho V. Die Suomusjarvi-Kultur. Die mittel- und

spдtmesolitische zeit in Finnland // Suomen Muinaismuistoyhdistyksen Aikakauskirja. Vol. 66. Helsinki, 1967. P. 10.. He studied the shapes and retouches of the quartz assemblage from the Palomaki Stone Age settlement site in UrjalaPдlsi S. Palomдen kivikautinen asuinpaikka Urjalassa // Suomen Museo 1913. Helsinki, 1913. P. 75-76.. Aarne Europaeus (Ayrapaa)Europaeus A. Ojalankankaan kivikauden lцytцpaikka Alavudella // Suomen Museo 1916. Helsinki, 1919. P. 73-82; see also: Luho. 1956. P. 16-17. published similar descriptions of quartz tools from the assemblage of the Stone Age settlement site of Ojalankangas in Alavus. He recognised that quartz had been an important raw material, at least in Western and Northern Finland.

Quartz did not receive much recognition again after the works of Palsi and Europaeus until the studies by Ville Luho in the 1940sIbid. P. 17. Luho V. Die Askola-Kultur. Die frьhmesolitische Steinzeit in Finnland // Suomen Muinaismuistoyhdistyksen Aikakauskirja. Vol. 57). Helsinki, 1956. P. 18; Luho V. Die Suomusjдrvi-Kultur. Die mittel- und spдtmesolitische zeit in Finnland. (Suomen Muinaismuistoyhdistyksen Aikakauskirja. Vol. 66). Helsinki, 1967. P. 120.. Luho researched the earliest occupation of Finland and quartz technology, comparing the physical characteristics of the latter to those seen in flint technology. He assumed that the similarity in forms of quartz tools with flint tools was a sufficient reason to adapt the Central European Paleolithic typology to Finnish material. In his opinion, quartz tools were made by applying flint knapping techniques. Therefore, artefact types correspond and are comparable to those made from flint. According to Luho¹¹, the differences in quartz technology concerned mainly the low quality of retouched blades and unpredictability of the material to fragmentation. Based on differences in quartz working techniques, he divided the Finnish Mesolithic into the Askola culture which was followed by the Suomusjarvi culture. He emphasized the large size of blades and blade cores found in the Askola culture, which prompted him to differentiate between the Askola and Suomusjarvi culturesLuho V. Die Askola-Kultur. Die frьhmesolitische Steinzeit in Finnland // Suomen Muinaismuisto- yhdistyksen Aikakauskirja. Vol. 57. Helsinki, 1956. P 116-117; Luho V. Die Suomusjдrvi-Kultur. Die mittel- und spдtmesolitische zeit in Finnland // Suomen Muinaismuistoyhdistyksen Aikakauskirja. Vol. 66. Helsinki. 1967. P 24. on the basis of this old technological trait. Luho considered the quartz technology of the Neolithic Comb Ware culture a continuation of the Suomusjarvi tradition, without any major changes in technology or populationLuho V. Die Suomusjдrvi-Kultur. Die mittel- und spдtmesolitische zeit in Finnland // Suomen Muinaismuistoyhdistyksen Aikakauskirja. Vol. 66. Helsinki, 1967. P 120..

Luho's method of analysing quartz technology by comparing it directly to flint technology was later criticised. In his Master's thesis, Ari SiiriainenSiiriдinen A. Yli-Iin Kierikin Asbestikeraamisen asuinpaikan kvartsiesineet. Lдhdekriittinen tutki- mus. Unpublished Master's thesis. University of Helsinki. Helsinki, 1968. studied the quartz assemblage from the Neolithic Asbestos Ceramic culture Yli-Ii settlement site. His intention was to find taxonomic differences in the material from the site dating to ca. 2000-1500 BC. In his work, Siiriainen stressed how the fracture properties of quartz differ from those of flint. Since Luho had failed to do this, Siiriainen considered his typology erroneousSiiriдinen A. Problems of the East Fennoscandian Mesolithic // Finskt Museum 1977. Helsinki, 1981. P 6-14.. According to Siiriainen, the uncritical application of typological terms derived from flint technology to characterize quartzes inevitably leads to incorrect conclusions. He believed that quartz and flint assemblages are not comparable in general because the introduction of quartz as a raw material caused the adaptation of new techniques which differed greatly from previous onesIbid. P. 14-15; Knutsson K. Garaselet-Lappviken-Rastklippan. Introduktion till en diskurssion om Norrlands Дldsta Bebyggelse // Tor. 1993. Vol. 25. P 12.. Based on quartz technology, Siiriainen attributed the earliest occupation in Finland to the Suomusjarvi cultural area, which, in his opinion, uniformly influenced both Finland and neighbouring areas in the East during the Mesolithic periodSiiriдinen A. Problems of the East Fennoscandian Mesolithic // Finskt Museum 1977. Helsinki, 1981. P 18; Pankrusev G. A. Karjalan mesoliittinen ja neoliittinen kausi. Mesoliittinen kausi. Helsinki / eds P Maaranen, M. Lavento, 1994. Vol. 1. P 67..

The favourable strategies of prehistoric people related to lithic raw materials did not gain much international attention until the 1980sBleed P The Optimal Design of Hunting Weapons: Maintainability or Reliability // American Antiquity. 1986. Vol. 51, iss. 4; Bamforth D. B. Technological efficiency and tool curation // American Antiquity. 1986. Vol. 51, iss. 1. P 38-50; Parry W. J., Kelly R. L. Expedient Core Technology and Sedentism. The Organization of Core Technology / eds J. K. Johnson, C. A. Morrow. Boulder, 1987. P 285-304; Gero J. M. Assessing social information in material objects: how well do lithics measure up? // Time, energy and stone tools / ed. by R. Torrence. Cambridge, 1989. P 92-105; Hayden B. Practical and Prestige Technologies: The Evolution of Material Systems // Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory. 1998. Vol. 5, iss. 1. P 1-55; Nelson M. C. The Study of Technological Organization // Archaeological Method and Theory. Vol. 3, iss. 1. 1991. P 57-100; Andrefsky W. Jr. Raw-material availability and the organization of technology // American Antiquity. 1994. Vol. 59, iss. 1. P 21-34; Kuhn S. L. Mousterian lithic technology. Princeton, 1995; Brantingham P J. et al. Raw Material Quality and Prepared Core Technologies in Northeast Asia // Journal of Archaeological Science. 2000. Vol. 27. P 255-271.. Although research on the effect of properties of raw materials became particularly common in technological studies in North America, examination of quartz in Finland was world-class too at the time. In 1977, Ari Siiriainen published an article in the journal Finskt Museum, in which he demonstrated how the quality and availability of raw materials used for crafting tools affected the overall composition of the archaeological assemblage in the River Rockshelter settlement site in Kenya (Eastern Africa). Siiriainen did not, however, generalize his results but considered them as a starting point and encouraged further research into the connection between the properties of raw materials and the composition of the material culture in different areas and time periods. The availability and quality of raw materials is generally considered important, if not crucial, in lithic studies, and therefore this issue is still relevant and important.

Quartz was also explored thereupon by other archaeologists. Heikki Matiskainen dealt with quartz to some degree when studying the Suomusjarvi culture and materialMatiskainen H.: 1) Beitrдge zur Kentnisse der mesolitischen Schrдgschneidepfeile und Mikrolithen aus Quarz. Studia praehistorica Fennica C F Meinander septuagenario dedicata // Iskos. Vol. 6. 1986. P 7798; 2) The Palaeoenvironment of Askola, Southern Finland. Mesolithic Settlement and Subsistence 100006000 b.p. // Iskos. 1989. Vol. 8. 97 p.. Hans-Peter SchulzSchulzH.-P.: 1) On the Mesolithic Quarz Industry in Finland. Fenno-Ugri et Slavi. Papers presented by the participants in the Finnish-Soviet Archaeological Symposium `Studies in the Material Culture of the Peoples of eastern and Northern Europe' 10-16 May 1988 in the National Museum of Finland // Iskos. Vol. 9. 1988. P 7-23; 2) Pioneerit pohjoisessa. Suomen varhaismesoliittinen asutus arkeologisen aineiston valossa // Suomen Museo 1996. Helsinki, 1996. P 5-45., on the other hand, studied Mesolithic quartz technologies in more detail. In his opinion, primary production was quite uniform. A hard or soft hammer was used on pieces of vein quartz, the bipolar technique was applied to a hard surface, and the platform percussion technique -- on a striking platform. Pure platform technique was used, too. Schulz has also found evidence for bipolar blade percussion. According to him, Mesolithic quartz technology involves features from flint knapping technology. Although there are differences in the initial production phases of quartz and flint technologies, there are also similarities. Techniques used to shape the tools after initial reduction resemble those used for working flint, and therefore applying terminology from flint knapping is justified. Nevertheless, typology should still be based primarily on knapping technology and not just on appearanceIbid. P. 18; Callahan E. et al. Kulturhistoriska kommentarer till det saregna sonderfallet vid bearbetning av kvarts // Tor. 1992. Vol. 24. P 32..

When considering technology as part of a complex interdependent system, we are able to refer to stone tools to answer broader questions regarding production and use of artefacts. According to Margaret NelsonNelson M. C. The Study of Technological Organization // Archaeological Method and Theory. 1991. Vol. 3, iss. 1. P 57-100., the most important result of the study of technological systems is the focus on the variables that influence the technology. In this way, the attention is shifted from the shape, production techniques or use of lithics, or from the picture these can produce of the activities occurring at the settlement site to the variables that cause change. The main objective of the study of technological systems has been to discover how changes in technology reflect broader changes in human behaviourKelly R. L. The three sides of a biface // American Antiquity. 1988. Vol. 53. P 717-734..

Inspired by the study of technological systems, recent research in Finnish lithic technology also deals with essential questions regarding stone working, artefact use and locating activity at settlement sitesRaihala O. Suomussalmen Salonsaari kivikautinen leiripaikka Kiantajarven rannalla // Kirjoitelmia arkeologian alalta. Kentalta poimittua 4. Museoviraston arkeologian osaston julkaisuja. Vol. 7. Helsinki, 1997. P 5-23; Rankama T. Ala-Jalve. Spatial, technological, and behavioral analyses of the lithic assemblage from a Stone Age Early Metal Age site in Utsjoki, Finnish Lapland // British Archaeological Reports, International Series. Vol. 681. Oxford, 1997; Rankama T. Analyses of the Quartz Assemblages of Houses 34 and 35 at Kauvonkangas in Tervola // Huts and Houses. Stone Age and Early Metal Age Buildings in Finland / Ed. by H. Ranta. Helsinki, 2002. P 79-108; Manninen M. A. Chaоne opйratoire-analyysi ja kvartsi. Esimerkkina kvartsiniskentapaikka Utsjoki Leaksagoadejohka 3, Master's thesis. E-thesis, University of Helsinki, 2004. Available: http://urn.fi/URN:NBN:file 200319462003 (accessed: 18.04.2018); Manninen M. A., Tallavaara M., Hertell E. Subneolithic bifaces and flint assemblages in Finland. Outlining the history of research and future questions. Uniting Sea. Stone Age societies in the Baltic Sea region // Papers in Archaeology. Vol. 33. Uppsala, 2003. P 161-179; Hertell E., Manninen M. A. Ravвsens kvartsmaterial // Finskt Museum 2002. Helsinki, 2005. P 84-100; Pesonen P., Tallavaara M. Esihistoriallinen leiripaikka Lohjan Hossanmaella- kvartseja ja yllattavia ajoituksia // Suomen Museo 2005. Helsinki, 2006. P 5-26..

Quartz working techniques

Knapping techniques are skills and capabilities mastered and used by a specific person. In archaeological lithic technological studies, technology usually refers to stone working customs. Lithic technological studies are often determined by research approaches; theoretical and philosophical principles, sometimes referred to as generalisationsTrigger B. G. A History of Archaeological Thought. Cambridge, 1989..

Techniques and lithic raw material are interdependent because the characteristics of rocks influence their use and behaviour when being worked onRajala U. Kvartsiteknologian tutkiminen ja luokittelu Turun Niuskalan Kotirinteen kiukaiskeraa- misen asuinpaikan vuosien 1983 ja 1984 kvartsiloydot. Unpublished Master's thesis, University of Turku. Turku, 1995.. The crystal structure of rock affects its fracture properties and ability to flake; in microcrystalline rocks the crystals cause the rock to fragment when external constructive forces surpass the resolution of the crystals. Different rocks have different crystal structures, which influence the controllability during knapping. Quartz and other minerals in the same group are generally comprised of silicone dioxide SiO₂Eskola P Kidetieteen, mineralogian ja geologian alkeet. Porvoo, 1957. P. 65.. In addition to common quartz and its colour variants, the quartz group includes silicone dioxides that are stable in room temperature, such as flint, calchedony, agate, jasper and opal.

Quartz and other lithic raw materials utilized in prehistory occur naturally in bedrock as veins or nodules. The lithic raw material most probably would have been collected either by digging or by taking advantage of vein quartz deposits. To determine the collection method used, one can analyse the quality of quartz, and look for the presence of an erosion surface, a sign of moraine quartz.

Quartz is hard but brittle. The relative hardness of quartz is 7 on the Mohs' 10-point hardness scale. Due to its structure, quartz behaves differently from flint when worked; a flint flake will usually remain intact, whereas a quartz flake will shatter into many fragments. An experimental study conducted by Swedish researchers in the 1980s and 1990s found that fragmentation is a not as random as was previously thought, but follows certain rules of fracture mechanicsCallahan E., Forsberg L., Knutsson K., Lindgren C. Frakturbilder. Kulturhistoriska kommentarer till det saregna sonderfallet vid bearbetning av kvarts // Tor. 1992. Vol. 24. P 27-63; Siiriainen A. Quartz, Chert and Obsidian. A Comparison of Raw Materials in a Late Stone Age Aggregate in Kenya // Finskt Museum 1974. Helsinki, 1977. P 15-16.. In addition, the internal flaws of quartz influence its working properties just as its brittleness causes fragmentation. These internal flaws cause fragmentation along pre-existing planes of fracture lines, making it difficult to predict and control the shape and size of flakesSiiriainen A. Quartz, Chert and Obsidian. A Comparison of Raw Materials in a Late Stone Age Aggregate in Kenya // Finskt Museum 1974. Helsinki, 1977. P 15-16.. The problem is not nearly as severe with flint and therefore predictability with flint is much better. It seems, however, that there is some predictability in quartz knapping when reduction sequences are not conducted too rapidly, and the material is checked periodically during different reduction sequences.

Distinguishing knapping methods and percussion techniques is intriguing because different techniques are suitable for producing different types of tools. By using bifacial reduction, it is possible to produce flakes suitable for use as blanks for tools, and to work retouched tools. Platform percussion is suited for making both blanks and shaping and sharpening tools such as scrapers. With bipolar percussion, however, it is possible to produce mostly flake blanks used to manufacture other tools. In North American scholarship, this technique is considered especially well-suited for working small-sized pieces of raw material. Due to this, bipolar percussion is considered to have been the method employed when there was a need to utilize raw material as economically as possibleAndrefsky W Jr. Lithics. Macroscopic approaches to analysis. (Cambridge Manuals in Archaeology). 1998. P 119-120, 149; Tallavaara M. Vihia teknologisista strategioista. Tutkimus Raakkylan Vihin kampa- keraamisen ajan asuinpaikan piikivi- ja kvartsiaineistoista. Master's thesis. E-thesis, University of Helsinki, 2007. P 24. Available: http://urn.fi/URN:NBN:fi-fe20072153 (accessed: 15.03.2018)..

In principal quartz knapping, there are two basic techniques -- platform percussion and bipolar percussion. Bifacial reduction is rare in quartz knapping and will therefore not be described in detail here. In platform percussion, the core is usually an artefact with one or more flat surfaces, for which the force needed for flake detachment is adapted. Techniques used were percussion, striking or pressureTallavaara M. Vihia teknologisista strategioista. Tutkimus Raakkylan Vihin kampakeraamisen ajan asuinpaikan piikivi- ja kvartsiaineistoista. Master's thesis. E-thesis, University of Helsinki, 2007. P. 73. Available: http://urn.fi/uRN:NBN:fi-fe20072153 (accessed: 15.03.2018).. In platform percussion, the core is held in one hand, supported by the thighs, for example, and flakes or blades are detached using a percussion stone or some other percussion tool. The strikes are directed diagonally towards the edge of the platform, causing the detachment of a flake that has retained a piece of the platform. It is typical that flakes produced with platform percussion do not have sharp, but rather upright angles between the surface of the platform and the dorsal side of the flake. Other distinctive features of platform percussion are bulbs of percussion, eraillure scars and arrisesCrabtree D. E. An introduction to the technology of stone tools. (Occasional papers of the museum, number 28). Pocatello (Idaho), 1972. P. 11; Knutsson K. Making and using stone tools. The analysis of the lithic assemblages from the Middle Neolithic sites with flint in Vasterbotten, northern Sweden. (Aun. Vol. 11). 1988. P. 37..

In platform percussion, an anvil can be used as a support. In this case, the quartz is placed on an anvil. When striking the core, the pressure of percussion is directed towards the edge of the platform and not directly from above to the anvil. The technique is still considered platform percussion as long as the aforementioned characteristics can be detected. Platform-on-anvil reduction is sometimes considered a fusion between platform percussion and bipolar percussion. If the raw material has been reduced to a very small size by later reduction sequences, then bipolar percussion techniques can often be applied in additionKnutsson K. Making and using stone tools. The analysis of the lithic assemblages from the Middle Neolithic sites with flint in Vasterbotten, northern Sweden. (Aun. Vol. 11). 1988. P. 148-149; Olofsson A. Early Colonization of Northern Norrland: Technology, Chronology, and Culture. Pioneer Settlement in the Mesolithic of Northern Sweden. (Archaeology and Environment. Vol. 16). Umea, 2003. P. 5. The bipolar blade production mentioned by Schulz can technically be placed within this categorySchulz H.-P. On the Mesolithic Quarz Industry in Finland // Fenno-Ugri et Slavi. Papers presented by the participants in the Finnish-Soviet Archaeological Symposium “Studies in the Material Culture of the Peoples of eastern and Northern Europe” 10-16 May 1988 in the National Museum of Finland. (Iskos. Vol. 9). P. 7-23; Olofsson A. Early Colonization of Northern Norrland: Technology, Chronology, and Culture. Pioneer Settlement in the Mesolithic of Northern Sweden. (Archaeology and Environment. Vol. 16). Umea, 2003. P. 71-72..

The anvil is also used as a support in bipolar percussion. In this case, the quartz core is placed on an anvil and struck directly from above, causing the percussion force to move towards the anvil. The percussion force enters the core from two sides: from the direction of the percussion and from the anvil. With hard blows the stress in quartz is broken, causing the flaking to follow the cracks in the material. As a result of bipolar percussion, flakes detach from both ends of the core. One of the main characteristics of the technique is the presence of radiating fissures on the both ends of the core. Contrary to platform percussion, the bipolar technique does not generally have a proper remnant of a platform or a defined bulb of percussion, but the eraillure scars in the core and flakes can be well defined. Flakes created using the bipolar technique can be thinner and therefore more practical in certain circumstances than those created with the platform percussion techniqueCrabtree D. E. An introduction to the technology of stone tools // Occasional papers of the museum, number 28. Pocatello (Idaho), 1972. P. 10-11; Callahan E. An evaluation of the lithic technology in middle Sweden during the Mesolithic and Neolithic. (Aun. Vol. 8). Uppsala, 1987. P. 61; Rankama T. Ala-Jalve.

Spatial, technological, and behavioral analyses of the lithic assemblage from a Stone Age Early Metal Age site in Utsjoki, Finnish Lapland // British Archaeological Reports, International Series. Oxford, 1997. Vol. 681. P. 73; Tallavaara M. Vihia teknologisista strategioista. Tutkimus Raakkylan Vihin kampakeraamisen ajan asuinpaikan piikivi- ja kvartsiaineistoista. Master's thesis. E-thesis, University of Helsinki, 2007. P 43-44. Available: http://urn.fl/URN:NBN:fi-fe20072153 (accessed: 15.03.2018)..

To guarantee better controllability during knapping and flake detachment, indirect percussion can be applied. When using this method, a punch made from a bone, stone or dense wood is placed on a desired location on the platform and struck with a hammerstone. Tools fashioned in this way are finer than those manufactured with the basic technique because the naturally occurring cracks in quartz can be utilized more efficiently. The resulting flakes are smaller and more consistent than those made with the basic techniqueCrabtree D. E. An introduction to the technology of stone tools // Occasional papers of the museum. Number 28. Pocatello (Idaho), 1972. P. 12-13..

If the core is not supported well during knapping, it eventually begins to bend. If force is applied in this situation, it will not go right through the core as intended. As a result, flakes are shorter than planned. If the item is supported securely, it will be easier to take advantage of materials fracture propertiesWhittaker J. C. Flintknapping. Making and understanding stone tools. Austin, 1994. P. 151.. An anvil and stones with defined edges can be used as supports to stabilise cores during flakingPelegrin J. Blade-Making Techniques from the Old World: Insights and Applications to Mesoamerican Obsidian Lithic Technology // Mesoamerican Lithic Technology: Experimentation and interpretation / Ed. by K. Hirth. Salt Lake City, 2003. P. 65.

The pressure technique can also be applied as an aid when shaping and strengthening blades. For this, a bone, antler or wooden tool is used to press out small pieces from the edge. The force to be used is determined by the size of the pieces to be removed. In situations requiring more force, the shoulder or chest can be used along with long tools. Flakes resulting from the use of pressure technique are often very consistent and thin compared to those made with the basic technique.

Helvetinhaudanpuro settlement site

The Helvetinhaudanpuro site is located on top of a high and gently sloping fossilized 7-10 m wide ancient shore escarpmentJussila T., Kriiska A., Rostedt T. The mesolithic Settlement in NE Savo, Finland and the earliest Settlement in the Eastern Baltic Sea // Acta Archaeologica. 2007. Vol. 78, iss. 2. P. 143-162.. According to the shore displacement chronology of Lake Saimaa, the water level was near the top edge of the escarpment (112 m a. s. l.) about 8500 cal BC and at the foot of the escarpment (108 m a. s. l.) about 8400 cal BC during the Ancylus Lake Phase of the Baltic Sea basin. At this location, the highest shoreline of ancient Lake Saimaa lies some 160 m further down the gentle slope at an elevation of 99 m a. s. l., where the water level stood c. 4800-4000 cal BC. Today, the nearest body of water is Lake Akonjarvi, part of the present Saimaa Lake system located 1.5 km west of the site at an elevation of 82 m a. s. l. The water of this lake has been at the present level since the beginning of the ancient Lake Saimaa transgression phase, soon after the isolation of the Saimaa lake complex from the early Litorina Sea c. 7000 cal BCSaarnisto M. The late Weichselian and Flandrian History of the Saimaa Lake Complex // Commen- tationes physico-mathematicae. Vol. 37. 1970. P. 3-7; ¹⁴C-dates calibrated // Jussila T. Saimaan kalliomaa- lausten ajoitus rannansiirtymiskronologian perusteella. Saimaan ja Paijanteen alueen kalliomaalausten si- jainti ja syntyaika. (Kalliomaalausraportteja. Vol. 1) / eds P. Kivikas, T. Jussila, R. Kupiainen. Jyvaskyla, 1999. P. 113-133..

Fig. 2. Location of Helvetinhaudanpuro site. Light grey indicates water level 8500 cal BC, darker grey is present water level (map by [Jussila et al., 2007, fig. 2])

The site was situated along the Ancylus Lake opening to the southwest and was located on the northwestern side of a small river mouth at the base of a 600-1000 m wide bay sheltered by an archipelago. The site lies on a c. 25 m wide terrace between the ancient shore escarpment and a gently rising slope (Figs 2 and 3). The terrain rises in all directions except southwest and west as seen from the site. When the site was occupied, the water directly in front of it was moderately deep, but on the north-western side the shore became shallow.

The site lies on the edge of a glacifluvial esker where the deposited sand of the esker turns into till. The soil at the site is quite loose equigranular sand; at the root of the escarpment it turns into fine sand and further downhill to silty till. To the north of the site the esker expands into a glacifluvial delta with kettle holes. 200 meters northeast of the site is a kettle hole c. 200 m in diameter with a maximum depth of some five to six meters. In this depression, there was a pond that is now almost completely paludified. From this pond, an ancient riverbed with steep banks runs directly to the south-eastern edge of the site where a small but fairly deep river discharged into the Ancylus Lake. On the opposite side of the ancient riverbed the terrain becomes somewhat more uneven, and on the upper slopes there are also outcrops of bedrock. Farther towards the southeast the soil is sandy till with a stony topsoil that has so far yielded no traces of prehistoric activities. Northwest of the site the topsoil becomes stonier, while the site area and its immediate surroundings are totally stone free. The fossilized erosion escarpment gradually disappears towards the northwest as the floor of the ancient lakebed in front of it gradually rises and blends into the gentle slope.

Fig. 3. General map of Helvetinhaudanpuro (map by [Jussila et al., 2007])

Archaeologist Timo Jussila discovered the fossilized Ancylus escarpment mentioned above in 2000 and visited the location several times during years 2000-2002, digging a number of random test pits at the edge of the escarpment without noticing any traces of prehistoric activity. In the autumn of 2003, the topsoil at the location was partly exposed as a result of logging operations, and when visiting the site again, Jussila observed several quartz flakes and tools indicating the presence of a Stone Age site. The site was not at the edge of the escarpment, as is usual, but about 15-20 metres away from it. Later, during excavations, a number of quartz flakes were found in a test pit on the opposite side of the riverbed. The north-western part of the site was partially destroyed by two 19^th century charcoal-pits (Fig. 3).

In the summer of 2004, a small excavation area of 15 m² was opened up on the spot where the highest concentrations of quartz were observed in patches of revealed mineral soilJussila T, Kriiska A., Rostedt T. Varhaismesoliittisesta asutuksesta Koillis-Savossa -- alustavia tu- loksia Juankosken Akonpohjan Helvetinhaudanpuron asuinpaikan kiviaineistosta // Arkeologia ja kulttuuri. Uutta kivikauden tutkimuksessa. Arkeologipaivat 2005. Hamina, 2006. P. 50-61.. In the summer of 2005, the excavation area was expanded to 48 m², of which 33 m² was excavated that year. A small test area of 6 m² was excavated at the edge of the escarpment. The finds from this second area were few and consisted of small quartz flakes. A third area of 7 m² was opened up 10 meters northwest of the main area, where a small chunk of flint was found in a scarification patch. This area was excavated only to a depth of 5 cm into the mineral soil, forming a “seed” for forthcoming excavations. Fieldwork continued in 2006, revealing, among other things, some traces of a semi-subterranean rectangular house. The overall size of the site is assumed to be roughly 80 x 25 mKriiska A., Rostedt T., Jussila T. The Development of Early Mesolithic Social Networks During the Settlement of Virgin Lands in the Eastern Baltic Sea Region- Interpreted through Comparison of Two Sites in Finland // Comparative Perspectives on Past Colonisation, Maritime Interaction and Cultural Integration. (New Directions in Anthropological Archaeology) / eds L. Melheim, H. Glorstad, Z. Glorstad. South Yorkshire, 2016. P. 23..

The main excavation area was characterized by a fairly thin podsol soil profile typical of the coniferous forest zone. Distinct coloured cultural layers were not discernible. Ten thousand years of podsolization processes in the loose and sandy soil had eradicated most of the visible traces of original anthropogenic dirt and sooty soil from the surface layers of the topsoil. A weakly outlined but deep pocket of dirty soil in the north-eastern corner of the main excavation area also contained a concentration of small quartz flakes. The find layer was generally 30-35 cm thick and was located directly below the organic surface layer. In a limited area towards the middle of the main excavation, the find layer reached a depth of40-45 cm, and in the previously mentioned spot in the north-eastern corner -- a depth of 70 cm.

There are two radiocarbon dates from the site, both made from burnt fragment of elk bone: 9200 ± 75 BP (Hela-918) -- 95 % probability 8606-8285 cal BC and 9275 ± 60 (Hela- 1406) -- 95 % probability 8697-8311 cal BC (calibrated by OxCal v4.3Bronk Ramsey C. OxCal (computer program). Version 4.23. The Manual. Available: http://c14.arch. ox.ac.uk/oxcal/OxCal.html (accessed: 19.05.2018). and the IntCal13 atmospheric calibration curveReimer P J. et al. IntCal13 and Marine13 radiocarbon age calibration curves 0-50,000 years cal BP // Radiocarbon. 2013. Vol. 55, iss. 4. P. 1111-1150.), which corresponds well to the age determination given by shore displacement chronology.

The quartz material from Helvetinhaudanpuro

The quartz material collected between 2004 and 2006 has been published in previous articlesJussila T., Kriiska A., Rostedt T. Varhaismesoliittisesta asutuksesta Koillis-Savossa -- alustavia tuloksia Juankosken Akonpohjan Helvetinhaudanpuron asuinpaikan kiviaineistosta // Arkeologia ja kulttuuri. Uutta kivikauden tutkimuksessa. Arkeologipaivat 2005. Hamina, 2006; Jussila T., Kriiska A., Rostedt T. The mesolithic Settlement in NE Savo, Finland and the earliest Settlement in the Eastern Baltic Sea // Acta Archaeologica. 2007. Vol. 78, iss. 2. P. 143-162; Kriiska A., Rostedt T., Jussila T. The Development of Early Mesolithic Social Networks During the Settlement of Virgin Lands in the Eastern Baltic Sea Region- Interpreted through Comparison of Two Sites in Finland // Comparative Perspectives on Past Colonisation, Maritime Interaction and Cultural Integration. (New Directions in Anthropological Archaeology) / eds L. Melheim, H. Glorstad, Z. Glorstad. South Yorkshire, 2016. P. 19-40.. Therefore, the focus of this paper is on the description of some special characteristics of the quartz assemblage.

The quartz found at the settlement site varies in colour and quality. The assemblages from Helvetinhaudanpuro sites contain milky as well as almost translucent material. Additionally, different shades of grey and `smoky' quartz are present. The bulk of the quartz found at the site derives from nodules. Only a small percentage could be interpreted as vein quartz. There is a simple explanation for this. Namely, we found an abundance of natural quartz nodules close to the settlement site, on the other side of the creek, which would have been easy to transport to the site. The quartz had a rough macrocrystalline structure and was mostly opaque in colour, although some nearly clear and greyish flakes were also detected.

The total amount of quartz found at the site is quite large, consisting of 23 981 pieces (Table 1). The material contained mostly flakes (23 506 pieces, 98 % of all quartz material including microdebitage) from which we were able to separate blades (1906 pieces, 8.1 %). We also separated cores (296 pieces, 1.2 %) and formal tools (179 pieces, 0.7 %) from the total quartz assemblage.

Table 1. Quartz artefacts from the Helvetinhaudanpuro site

Total	23981	99.7 %	of all lithic material
Flakes	23506	98.0 %	of total quartz artefacts
Blades	1906	8.1 %	of quartz flakes
Cores	296	1.2 %	of total quartz artefacts
Tools	179	0.7 %	of total quartz artefacts
Identified techniques	6003	25.0 %	of total quartz artefacts
Bipolar	4198	69.9 %	of identified techniques in quartz artefacts
Platform	1805	30.1 %	of identified techniques in quartz artefacts
Flakes	3348	55.8 %	of identified techniques in quartz artefacts
Bipolar flakes	2051	61.3 %	of identified quartz flakes
Platform flakes	1297	38.7 %	of identified quartz flakes
Blades	2203	36.7 %	of identified techniques in quartz artefacts ...

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