Processes of receiving western astronomy in China and Vietnam

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University of Science and Education

The University of Dan Nang

Processes of receiving western astronomy in China and Vietnam

Anh Thuan Truong, PhD

Danang city, Vietnam

Annotation

From the sixteenth century to the eighteenth century, in an effort to introduce and develop Christianity in China and Vietnam, Western missionaries, especially the Jesuit missionaries, found an effective way to realize this purpose: to use European scientific and technological achievements in order to satisfy the curiosity of kings, mandarins and intellectuals as well as their desire to learn new knowledge, thereby hoping to successfully attract the said social forces to follow the way which created a unique phenomenon: Christianity gradually entered the hearts of two nations of China and Vietnam along with the process of receiving Western scientific and technological achievements in these two countries. In particular, astronomy was one of the most typical fields. The article thoroughly analyzes means of introducing and results of receiving Western astronomy in China and Vietnam from the sixteenth century to the eighteenth century on the basis of the original historical data and studies by Chinese, Vietnamese and international scholars as well the application of historical research methods combined with comparative study methods. It elucidates the similarities and differences in the process of receiving Western astronomy in these two countries and contributes to the scholarship on the history of East-West cultural exchange in China and Vietnam in the sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.

Keywords: astronomy, the West, China, Vietnam, Christianity, Society of Jesus, mission, missionary.

Аннотация

Внедрение достижений западной астрономии в Китае и Вьетнаме

Представленная статья выполнена в духе междисциплинарных исследований. Ее ключевым предметом является процесс распространения представлений западноевропейских ученых в азиатском регионе. Показано, что с XVI по XVIII в., стремясь внедрить и развить христианство в Китае и Вьетнаме, западные миссионеры, особенно миссионеры-иезуиты, нашли эффективный способ достижения этой цели. Использование европейских научно-технических достижений и приобретение новых знаний в Китае и Вьетнаме, давали возможность надеяться на успешное привлечение королей, мандаринов и интеллигенции этих стран на путь, который привел к возникновению уникального явления: христианство постепенно вошло в культуру народов Китая и Вьетнама вместе с процессом внедрения и развития западных научно-технических достижений в этих странах. В частности, астрономия является одной из наиболее типичных областей этого процесса. На основе использования оригинальных исторических источников, изучения достижений китайских, вьетнамских и западных ученых, а также сочетания применения системы методов изучения исторической науки с другими методами, особенно со сравнительным методом исследования, в статье проводится тщательный анализ способов и результатов внедрения западной астрономии в Китае и Вьетнаме в ХVI -Х VШ вв. Результатом исследования стало выявление сходства и различия процесса проникновения западной астрономии в эти страны, а также попытка внести конкретный вклад в изучение истории культурного обмена между Востоком и Западом в Китае и Вьетнаме в ХVI-ХVIII вв.

Ключевые слова: астрономия, Запад, Китай, Вьетнам, христианство, Общество Иисуса, миссии, миссионер.

Introduction

In the sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the presence of the Western missionaries, especially the Jesuit missionaries, in remote lands of the Far East, namely China and Vietnam, created a major change, not only in evangelization but also in the field of contemporary East-West cultural exchange. Formulation, creation and flexible application of the method of “missionary academic”See: Shi J.H. Tan Ming Qing zhi ji ru Hua Yesuhuishi di xueshu chuanjiao [The missionary academic ways of Jesuits into China at the end of the first period of Qing dynasty] // Neimenggu Shida xuebao [Journal of Inner Mongolia Normal University]. 1983. Vol. 3. P. 74-75; Liu Y.

H. Li Madou deng zaoqi chuanjiaoshi di xueshu chuanjiao celue ji qi wenhua yiyi [Matteo Ricci and the other missionaries' tactical choice and Its Cultural values in late Ming dynasty] // Tianjin Shehui kexue [Tianjin Social Sciences]. 2003. Vol. 6. P. 130-135. not only helped Jesuit missionaries realize considerable success in the process of “Christianizing” these two countries but also gradually introduce many Western scientific and technological achievements, including astronomy, which were received by all walks of life in the societies of China and Vietnam, especially by kings, mandarins and intellectuals.

Missionary academic is a term employed by Chinese researchers to refer to Jesuit missionaries using Western cultural and scientific achievements in fields of astronomy, geography, mathematics, physics, chemistry, military weapons, painting, literature, etc. to attract classes in Chinese society, especially the upper classes, to the faith in Christianity in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. According to scholar Shi Jinghuan if JS, the initiator of this missionary method was Jesuit missionary Francois Xavier - the pioneer missionary in the Far East in the first half of the sixteenth century. From the end of the sixteenth century to the beginning of the seventeenth century, the “missionary academic” continued to be inherited and thoroughly applied by Jesuit missionaries, typically Matteo Ricci, Michele Ruggleri, contributing to the great success in the propagation of Christianity in China.

The analysis of original historical data as well as related scholarship shows th the process of receiving Western astronomy in China and Vietnam in the sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth centuries despite a few similarities differed with respect to the method and result.

“Missionary academic” and the process of receiving the Western astronomy in China and Vietnam

From the sixteenth century, the explosion of geographical discoveries associated with the advancements of maritime technology, especially the demands generated by the development of capitalism in Europe at that time, boosted the process of formation and major expansion of the trend of “going to the East”, in which the leading force was the Western merchants and missionaries, aiming at the goal of “pepper and soul”Plattner F.A. Quand l'Europe cherchait l'Asie: Jйsuites missionnaires (1541-1785). Paris, 1954. P. 11., meaning abundant goods and spices from the East and the faith of people of the kingdoms in this area. Documents recorded by the Westerners showed that in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, Spanish, Portuguese, Dutch, English, and French merchant ships followed one another in pursuit of trade with many countries in the Far East region, including China and Vietnam. Missionaries accompanied traders on these merchant ships. In this context, the process of introducing and receiving Western scientific and technological achievements in general, and astronomy in particular, took place naturally, associated with the pioneering role of Christian missionaries, especially Jesuit missionaries. From the outset, it also shaped the advantage of the mission path in the process of receiving achievements in Western astronomy in China and Vietnam at the time.

In fact, this process in the abovementioned countries originated from the introduction of the “missionary academic” method proposed by Jesuit missionaries and implemented in the sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. In the first half of the sixteenth century, when missionary work in China reached a dead end, Western missionaries still failed to access the inland with the Gospel. At the time, Christian societies in Macao were involved in a fierce debate about the choice of one of two methods: “missionary force”From 1565 to 1569, when the mission in China faced many difficulties, some Western missionaries such as Ribera, Melchior Nunes Barreto, and Alonso Sanchez said that it was necessary to use force to open the door of China for Christianity to enter. This idea marked the birth of the “missionary force” policy. See: Dunne G.H. Generation of Giants: The story of the Jesuits in China in the last Decades of the Ming dynasty. Notre Dame, 1962. P. 16-17; Pei H. X., Xiao R.H. Tianzhujiao shiliu shiji zai Hua chuanjiaozhi [Catholicism in the sixteenth century in China missionary annals]. Shanghai, 1938. P. 231. or “missionary academic”Shi J.H. Tan Ming Qing zhi ji ru Hua Yesuhuishi di xueshu chuanjiao [The missionary academic ways of Jesuits into China at the end of the first period of Qing dynasty]. P. 74. Alessandro Valignano(1539-1606) is a Jesuit missionary, an Italian. During his mission, Valignano mainly conducted the mission in the Far East, especially Goa (India), Macau (China) and Japan. For the biography of Alessadro Valignano, see more: Morgan J.F. The Japanese and the Jesuits: Alessandro Valignano in Sixteenth Century Japan. New York, 1993; O'Malley J.W., Bailey C.A., Harris S. J., Kennedy T.F. The Jesuits: Cultures, Sciences, and the Arts, 1540-1773. Vol. 1. Torronto, 1999. P. 336-351.. However, in the second half of the sixteenth century, Jesuit missionaries initially successfully adopted the policy of “adaptation to indigenous culture” proposed by Alessandro Valignano. This line also emphasized the importance of acquiring cultural and historical values, customs and practices, especially the study and fluent use of languages and scripts of the nations under the mission for the success of evangelizationLi M.., Jin N.G., He G.J., Wang Z.Z., Li S. Li Madou Zhongguo zhaji (Shang ce) [Matteo Ricci's Notes on China (vol. 1)]. Beijing, 1983. P. 142-143., and clearly showed the necessity to use European scientific knowledge as an effective way to conquer the faith of kings, mandarins, intellectuals and the peopleBangert WV. A History of the Society of Jesus. Saint Louis, 1972. P. 157. of the Eastern kingdoms. The thorough and creative application of this policy helped Matteo Ricci TPMateo Ricci TUI® (1552-1610) was an Italian Jesuit missionary who laid the foundation of the Jesuit mission in China. He served as Catholic Archbishop in China from 1597 to 1610. Since 1582, he began to learn Chinese and Chinese culture. He was known as the Western who was knowledgeable about Chinese culture in the sixteenth century. For Mateo Ricci, see: Fontana M. Matteo Ricci: A Jesuit in the Ming Court. Maryland, 2010; Po-chia Hsia R. Matteo Ricci and the Catholic Mission to China, 1583-1610: A short history with document. Indianapolis, 2016; Laven M. Mission to China: Matteo Ricci and the Jesuit Encounter with the East. London, 2011., Francesco BuzomiFrancesco Buzomi was considered to be the first founder of Christianity in Cochinchina, Vietnam, in the first half of the seventeenth century. He was born in 1576 in Naples (Italy), served as a missionary in Japan and worked as a professor of theology in Macao before going to Cochinchina, Vietnam in 1615. Of his 24 years of service in Cochinchina (1615-1639), the first 10 years (1615-1624) was relatively favorable, but the next 14 years were marked by difficulties and challenges (1625-1639). In 1639 Lord Nguyen Phuc Lan asked him to return to Macao to play a role for the Lord. He fell ill and died in Macao that year when the work was not finished. See: Do Q.C. Lich sti chfl Quoc ngfl (1620-1659) [History of the Romanized Vietnamese script (1620-1659)]. SaiGon, 1972. P. 24; Rhodes A. Divers Voyages et Missions. Paris, 1653. P. 67-70. and other Jesuit missionaries to gradually achieve the goal of fully opening the door of China and Vietnam in order to “nurture” the first Christian “seeds” in these two missionary areas. In that process, they further realized that the most effective way to attract the Chinese and the Vietnamese to Christianity, especially kings, mandarins and intellectuals, was to use academic thought as well as Western scientific and technological knowledge and achievements. Matteo Ricci, the first Jesuit missionary who successfully applied the policy of “missionary academic” in China from the late sixteenth century to the early seventeenth century, even asserted that to ensure the success of the mission at first it was necessary to receive the respect of the Chinese. There was nothing better for the purpose than a Western academic. And once people's hearts were conquered by the academic, they would definitely believe in ChristianityFei L.Z., Feng C.J. Ru Hua Yesuhuishi liezhuan [Biographies of Jesuits entering China]. Shanghai, 1938. P. 42; Ricci M., Trigault N. China in the sixteenth century: the journals of Matthew Ricci, 1583-1610. New York, 1953. P. 325.. It should be noted that, compared to other religious orders, the most prominent characteristic of the Jesuit missionaries was the belief in the importance of education. Before traveling to distant lands to carry out evangelization, Jesuits often embarked on a systematic, professional and formal educational process for over ten years. Accordingly, they not only had to study theology but also had to choose among types of natural science knowledgeDu Halde J. B. Yesuhuishi Zhongguo shujianji: Zhongguo huiyilu (Di yi juan) [Jesuit missionaries letter collection in China: China memoirs (vol. 1)]. Zhengzhou, 2001. P. 3.. Therefore, most of the missionaries of this religious order had erudite knowledge. That was one of favorable prerequisites for the Jesuits to assert their leading role in spreading and extending the influence of Western science and technology in general, and astronomy in particular, in China and Vietnam through their missionary process in the sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.

Although the process of receiving Western astronomy in China and Vietnam from the sixteenth to the eighteenth centuries was associated with the method of “missionary academic”, it differed in the two countries. In China, respectful attitude of the rulers and upper class to astronomy as well as their curiosity for “strange items”In the eyes of the Chinese in the sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, items of Western origin, especially those related to science and technology such as watches, lenses, and telescopes were strange, aroused curiosity, so they were called “strange items”. See: Shi J. H. Tan Ming Qing zhi ji ru Hua, especially astronomical instrumentsYesuhuishi di xueshu chuanjiao [The missionary academic ways of Jesuits into China at the end of the first period of Qing dynasty]. P. 76-77.A letter from the French missioner Louis Porquet written on 14 October 1719 mentioned a wide range of Western items that made Chinese people become very curious and interested, in which instruments related to astronomical fields such as watches, telescopes, microscopes, and lense types accounted for the large quantity. See: Du Halde J.B. Yesuhuishi Zhongguo shujianji... [(vol. 2)]. Zhengzhou, 2001. P. 214. originated from the West, was recognized, so during the missionary period in China, Jesuit missionaries often offered these instruments as gifts to the kings, mandarins, and intellectuals. According to historical records from 1598 to 1600, Matteo Ricci in the course of his mission upon arrival in different lands in China, such as Zhaoqing M. Shaozhou M.J., Nanchang F.A., Nanjing S., often carried and displayed at his residence a wide range of Western astronomical instruments - celestial globe, terrestrial globe, quadrant, compass and sun-dial - at the same time using them as gifts for local officialsSong J.L. Ming mo liju yu xixue dong jian [The Calendar Bureau and the introduction of Western science in the end of Ming dynasty] // Xinyang Shifan Xueyuan Xuebao (Zhexue Shehui kexue ban) [Journal of Xinyang Normal University (Philosophy and Social Sciences Edition)]. 2006. Vol. 4. P. 121; Guo F.X. Types and sources of scientific instruments in the Imperial Court of the early Qing dynasty // Asian Studies. 2015. Vol. 3. P. 128.. In addition, he also paid special attention to maximizing his astronomy expertise to create a reputation and make an impression on the rulers and the upper class in the Chinese society at that timePfister L. Notices biographiques et bibliographiques sur les jйsuites de l'ancienne mission de Chine. Vol. 1. Shanghai, 1932. P. 23.. In 1601, during his second visit to Beijing, Matteo Ricci along with Diego de Pantoja S.Diego de Pantoja ЖЖS (1571-1618) was a Spanish Jesuit missionary operating in China during the early seventeenth century. He joined the Jesuits in 1589 and went to China to preach in 1599. In 1601, he went to Beijing with Matteo Ricci and other Jesuit missionaries. Here, with an understanding of astronomy and mathematics, he helped Ming dynasty revise the calendar. In 1617, he was expelled from mainland China, returned to Macao and died here in 1618. See: Ricci M., Trigault N. China in the sixteenth century: the journals of Matthew Ricci, 1583-1610. New York, 1953. P. 355; Pfister L. Notices biographiques et bibliographiques sur les jйsuites de l'ancienne mission de Chine. Vol. 1. Shanghai, 1932. P. 69-73. and 8 other Jesuit missionariesZhu Q.Z. Zhu Qianzhi wenji (Di qi juan) [Zhu Qianzhi's collection of works (vol. 7)]. Fujian, 2002. P. 69. brought 34 Western gifts of 15 different categoriesHan Q., Wu M. Xi chao chong zheng ji Xi chao ding an (wai san zhong). Beijing, 2006. P. 20. to offer to Emperor Wanli M.M., which included some types of astronomical instruments: a striking clock, an armillary sphere, a triangular prismLi J.P. Qing chu shi da yuan an [The ten great unjust cases in the early Qing dynasty]. Beijing, 1993. P. 198; Pfister L. Notices biographiques et bibliographiques sur les jйsuites de l'ancienne mission de Chine. Vol. 1. P. 28-29.. During the Qing dynasty, Jesuit missionaries Philippe Marie Grimaldi M.S.Philippe Marie Grimaldi (1639-1712) was a Jesuit missionary operating in China from the second half of the 17th century to the beginning of the eighteenth century. He joined the Jesuits in 1657 and went to Macao to preach in 1659. In 1671, he went to Beijing to assist the missionary Ferdinand Verbiest in astronomical observation and calendar calculation and until 1688, when Ferdinand Verbiest died, he held the position of Director of the Calendar Bureau. During his working time there, he made certain contributions to bringing Western scientific and technological achievements, especially astronomy to the Chinese people. See: Pfister L. Notices biographiques et bibliographiques sur les jйsuites de l'ancienne mission de Chine. Vol. 1. P. 372-376; Treadgold D.W The West in Russia and China: Religious and Secular Thought in Modern Times. Vol. 2. Cambridge, 1973. P. 27., Ferdinand Verbiest SlitFerdinand Verbiest StоM (1623-1688), was a Belgian Jesuit missionary, one of the people who played a major role in spreading Western scientific and technological achievements in China in the 17^th century. In 1641, he joined the Jesuits. In 1658, he and other missionaries traveled to the Far East to evangelize and arrived in Macao in 1659. During his time in China from 1659 until his death (1688), he served as Director of the Qing Bureau of Astronomy, helped the dynasty conduct many astronomical tasks such as making catalogues of stars, creating 6 large astronomical instruments that are still displayed today on the Beijing Observatory. To find out his whole life and career, see: Pfister L. Notices biographiques et bibliographiques sur les jйsuites de l'ancienne mission de Chine. Vol. 1. P 338-362; Spence J.D. Emperor of China: Self-Portrait of K'ang-hsi. New York, 1988. P. 15-16., Jean Francois Gerbillon MSJean Francois Gerbillon MS was a French Jesuit missionary, born in 1654 in Verdun. In 1670, he joined the Jesuits. He went to China in 1687 to the mission. During his time in the country, he once held an important position in the Qing dynasty. He died in Beijing in 1770. On the life and career of Jean Francois Gerbillon, see: Pfister L. Notices biographiques et bibliographiques sur les jйsuites de l'ancienne mission de Chine. Vol. 1. P. 443-452., Louis Le ComteLouis Le Comte was a French Jesuit missionary, born in 1655 in Bordeaux. He joined the Jesuits in 1671. In 1687, he went to China to the mission. In 1790, he returned to Europe and never came back to China. He died in Bordeaux in 1728. On the life and career of Louis Le Comte, see: Pfister L. Notices biographiques et bibliographiques sur les jйsuites de l'ancienne mission de Chine. Vol. 1. P. 440-443., Jean de Fontaney S.MJean de Fontaneywas a French Jesuit missionary, operating in China from the late seventeenth to the first half of the eighteenth century. He was born in 1643 in Bretagne. In 1658, he joined the Jesuits. He went to China in 1687 to the mission with some other French Jesuit missionaries. During his mission in China, he set foot in various lands such as Guangzhou Jl'l, NingboBeijing JkM, Nanjing SM. In 1703, he returned to Europe and worked in La Flйche, France, until his death (1710). See: Pfister L. Notices biographiques et bibliographiques sur les jйsuites de l'ancienne mission de Chine. Vol. 1. P. 420-434., Joachim BouvetJoachim Bouvet (1656-1730), was a French Jesuit missionary, operating in China from the late seventeenth to early eighteenth centuries. In 1678, he joined the Jesuits and set out for Chinese mission in 1687. During his mission in this country, by compiling and translating Western science and technology books into Chinese, he made significant contributions to the East-West cultural exodus in contemporary China. About the life and career of Joachim Bouvet, see: Pfister L. Notices biographiques et bibliographiques sur les jйsuites de l'ancienne mission de Chine. Vol. 1. P. 434-440., Hubert Cousin de Mericourt J.R.Hubert Cousin de Mericourt (1729-1774) was a French Jesuit missionary operating in China in the late eighteenth century. In 1754, he joined the Jesuits and set out for Chinese mission in 1773. During the period of work in the country, he used to manufacture watches and a number of other tools. He died in Beijing in 1774. See: Pfister L. Notices biographiques et bibliographiques sur les jйsuites de l'ancienne mission de Chine. Vol. 2. P. 974. and Joseph PanziJoseph Panzi SSпп (born before or after 1733, died before 1812) was an Italian Jesuit missionary who went to China to evangelize in 1771, making a significant contribution to introducing Western scientific and technological achievements into China at the end of the eighteenth century - early nineteenth century. On the life and career of Joseph Panzi, see: Pfister L. Notices biographiques et bibliographiques sur les jйsuites de l'ancienne mission de Chine. Vol. 2. P. 971-974. while working at courts during the reign of Kangxi (1662-1722) and Qianlong (1735-1796) many times offered to these two emperors clock types as well as instruments for measuring astronomical phenomenaPfister L. Notices biographiques et bibliographiques sur les jйsuites de l'ancienne mission de Chine. Vol. 1. P. 373; Thomaz de Bossierre M.Y. Yesuhuishi Zhang Cheng - Luyi shisi pai wang Zhongguo de wu wei shuxuejia zhiyi [Jesuit Jean-Franзois Gerbillon - One of the five mathematicians sent by Louis XIV to China]. Zhengzhou, 2009. P. 29; Gerbillon J. F. Zhang Cheng riji [Jean-Franзois Gerbillon's diary]. Beijing, 1973. P. 62-63, 71; Bai J., Ma X.X. Kangxi di chuan [Biography of Emperor Kangxi]. Zhuhai, 1995. P. 31-32; Juznic S. Liu Songling - Jiu Yesuhui zai jing zuihou yi wei weida de tianwenxuejia [Hallerstein - The last great Astronomer of the Old Jesuit in Beijing]. Shanghai, 2014. P. 132-133..

In Vietnam, in the sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, to approach the kings, mandarins and native intellectuals, the Jesuit missionaries working in the country also used the method of offering gifts. However, if in China, European gifts, especially astronomical measuring items and time measuring instruments presented by Jesuit missionaries to the king and mandarins of Ming and Qing dynasties were relatively various and abundant, in Vietnam their number was limited. Since Vietnam was quite far from the missionary center in Macao, Western merchant ships (from Portugal, Netherlands, England, France) came here only a few times a year, sometimes even didn't come to trade for years, so missionaries traveling by such ships to this country had fewer opportunities to land at Vietnamese trading ports. According to some records from contemporary Jesuit missionaries, such items as pearls, goldSaccano M. Relation des progrиz de la Foy au royaume de la Cochinchine иs annйes 1646 et 1647. Paris, 1653. P. 65-66, 111-113., clocks and a very small number of Western science booksRhodes A. 1) Divers Voyages et Missions. Paris, 1653. P. 92; 2) Histoire du Royaume de Tunquin. Lyon, 1651. P. 152-153. were commonly used as gifts by Jesuits in Vietnam. As for astronomical instruments, there is no record. Meanwhile, among the goods that European traders brought to Vietnam at this stage, there were no compasses, telescopes, microscopes, lenses or astronomical instruments from the WestManguin P.Y. Les Portugais sur les cфtes du Viet-Nam et du Campa. Paris, 1972. P 248-249; Mantienne F Les relations politiques et commerciales entre la France et la pйninsule Indochinoise (XVIIe siиcle). Paris, 2001. P 259.. In China, the process of manufacturing astronomical instrumentsXu J.L. Ershisi shi quanyi (Di san ce) [The full translation of twenty-four sets of history books (vol. 3)]. Shanghai, 2004. P 436; Zhang B.C. Ming Qing cetian yiqi zhi Ouhua [The Europeanization of astronomical instruments in the Ming and Qing China]. Shenyang, 2000. P 161-170. See more: Yao C.S. Qingdai Qintianjian de tianwen gongzuo [Astronomy activities of the Qing dynasty Qintianjian] // Guangxi Minzu Xueyuan xuebao (Ziran kexue ban) [Journal of Guangxi University for Nationalities (Natural Science Edition)]. 2004. Vol. 2. P 44; Needham J., Wang L. Science and Civilisation in China. Vol. 3. Cambridge, 1959. P 451-452. as well as compiling and translating European bibliography on astronomy into Chinese by Jesuit missionariesXu Z.Z. Ming Qing jian Yesuhuishi zheyi tiyao [Summary of Jesuits translated works in Ming and Qing dynasties]. Shanghai, 1949; Ma Z.T. “Xixue Dong jian” yu “Dongxue Xi jian” - Ming mo Qing chu chuanjiaoshi keji fanyi de lishi wenhua yujing [Historical and cultural context of missionary sci-tech translation in late Ming and early Qing dynasty] // Yuwen xuekan [Journal of Language and Literature Studies]. 2010. Vol. 8. P 83; Hu X.Y. Cong “Ming Qing jian Yesuhuishi yizhu tiyao” kan Zhong Xi xueshu jiaoliu [On Chinese and Western Academic Exchange from the perspective of “Summary of Jesuits translated works in Ming and Qing dynasties”] // Sichuan Tushuguan xuebao [Journal of The Sichuan Society for Library Science]. 1996. Vol. 6. P 78. See more: Bernard H. Les Adaptations Chinoises D'ouvrages Europeens: Bibliographie Chronologique Depuis la Venue des Portugais а Canton Jusqu'а la Mission Franзaise de Pйkin 1514-1688 // Monumenta Serica. 1945. Vol. 10. P 1-57, 309-388. was vigorous, which speeded up the reception of Western astronomy in this country and helped achieve great results, in contrast to Vietnam, where such activities of Western missionaries were not documented. Although Jesuit missionaries in Vietnam were engaged in the compilation and translation of European bibliographies into the native language in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, they only focused on the fields of Bible, theology and Christian ritualsIn the early seventeenth century, only a few years after arriving in Cochin China, Jesuits immediately composed a book of catechism in Nфm script to serve the mission. Later, with the aim of providing catechism books to the parishioners, Alexandre de Rhodes, Amaral, Fontes, Borges, Barbosa, composed or translated some Christian books. In particular, the number of books translated and edited by Majorica were maximum 48 volumes. See: Truong B. C. Lich sь phat trien Cфng giao Viкt Nam [History of Catholic development in Vietnam] // Nguyкt san Cфng giao vа Dвn tфc [Monthly Journal of Catholicism and Ethnicity]. 1999. Vol. 56 (8). P 114-115., whereas the fields of science and technology, especially astronomy, remained completely outside of their scope. However, that didn't mean that Vietnamese people did not have any opportunity to access Western astronomy in the sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.

In fact, at this stage, Western astronomy was introduced to the country and initially accepted by Vietnamese kings, mandarins, and intellectuals by two methods: firstly through Jesuit missionaries who explicitly discussed and explained the knowledge of Western astronomy to the rulers of VietnamBaldinotti G. La Relation sur le Tonkin du P. Baldinotti // Bulletin de l'Ecole franзaise d'Extrкme- Orient. 1903. Vol. 3. P. 71-78; Rhodes A. Histoire du Royaume de Tunquin. Lyon, 1651. P. 152-153., and secondly - by missionaries of this order who, on many occasions, calculated the imminent solar and lunar eclipses and outlined them in drawings informing the king and local officials, and also debated a number of issues related to these phenomena with Vietnamese astronomersBorri C. Relation de la nouvelle mission des pиres de la compagnie de Jйsus au royaume de la Cochin Chine // Bulletin des Amis du Vieux Huй. 1931. Vol. 3-4. P. 376-381; Luis G. Histoire de ce qui s'est passй en Йthiopie, Malabar, Brasil, et les Indes Orientales. Paris, 1628. P. 122-123..

In short, from the sixteenth to the eighteenth centuries, the method of “missionary academic” devised and implemented by Jesuit missionaries became a key factor leading to the reception of the Western astronomy in China and Vietnam. However, in these two countries, the specific realization of this method was different. In China, the policy of “missionary academic” was concretized by Jesuit missionaries who offered and manufactured new Western astronomical instruments; repaired and improved Chinese traditional astronomical instruments in accordance with Western system; compiled and translated European astronomical books into the Chinese language with the desire to promote access to and reception of the Western astronomy by the Chinese people, especially kings, mandarins and intellectuals. By contrast, in Vietnam, Western astronomy came to the Vietnamese people by simpler and less profound means as Jesuit missionaries in the country interpreted the Western astronomical theory to indigenous rulers and calculated and predicted solar and lunar eclipses. The difference in the process of applying the “missionary academic” method in China and Vietnam mentioned above led to differences in the level and results of receiving Western astronomy in these two countries in the sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.

The results of reception of Western astronomy in China and Vietnam

western european christianity china vietnam

From the sixteenth century to the eighteenth century, to realize the goal of bringing Christianity, missionaries in China and Vietnam introduced and developed Western scientific and technological achievements, especially astronomy, following in the footsteps of Jesuits by entering the palace as well as other localities in these two missionary lands in order to attract the kings, mandarins and indigenous intellectuals and arouse their curiosity and admiration for the accuracy of astronomical calculations and forecasts. In fact, during sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the results of this process far exceeded the expectation of Jesuit missionaries: Christianity gradually entered the hearts of two nations of China and Vietnam being immensely facilitated by a simultaneous process of the reception of Western astronomical innovations.

In China, despite the prohibition of Christianity becoming increasingly severe and intense, the emperors of Ming and Qing dynasties adopted an open-minded attitude to the employment of Jesuit missionaries at the Bureau of Astronomy to take over astronomical and calendar works in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, which made the process of receiving Western astronomy in the country direct and continuous but also brought about a number of positive results expressed in the following specific aspects.

Firstly, Western astronomy made its way into China through the correction and compilation of the Calendar made by Jesuit missionaries in the late Ming dynasty period and early Qing dynasty period. During the late Ming dynasty period (early seventeenth century), before the introduction of astronomy and Western math calendar associated with Christianity, there were many contemporary mandarins and intellectuals interested in the new astronomical knowledge from Europe, among whom Li Zhizao X.X.Li Zhizao(1565-1630) was a Chinese mandarin and scientist at the end of the sixteenth century - the beginning of the seventeenth century. He showed his openness to the achievements ofWestern civilization through his association with the Jesuit missionaries and collaboration in preparation and translation of many Western scientific and technological bibliographies into Chinese language, importantly contributing to promoting the process of East-West cultural exchange in China in the late Ming period. About his life and career, see: Gerstl A., Strasakova M. Unresolved Border, Land and Maritime Disputes in Southeast Asia: Bi-and Multilateral Conflict Resolution Approaches and ASEAN's Centrality. Leiden, 2016. P. 179; Liang Z. J. Shuxuejia zhuanlue cidian [Biographical sketch dictionary of mathematicians]. Jinan, 1989. P. 384. and Xu Guangqi X.X.Xu Guangqi XXX (1562-1633) was a mandarin, a mathematician, an astronomer and an agronomist in China at the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries. He was known for being a progressive and open-minded person in receiving achievements of the Western civilization, working together with Jesuit missionaries on preparation and translation of some European scientific and technical documents to the Chinese language, importantly contributing to promoting the process of East-West cultural exchange in China in the late Ming period. About the life and career of Xu Guangqi, see: Jami C., Engelfriet P., Blue G. Statecraft and Intellectual Renewal in Late Ming China: The Cross-Cultural Synthesis of Xu Guangqi (1562-1633). Leiden, 2001. P. 19, 33, 35, 44-45, 48-49, 93-94, 309, 400, 409; Needham J., Bray F Science and Civilisation in China. Vol. 6. Cambridge, 1984. P. 64-65. should be mentioned firstLiang Q.C. Zhongguo jin san bai nian xueshu shi [Academical history of China of the last three hundred years]. Taiyuan, 2001. P. 321.. Realizing the advanced nature of Western astronomy compared to the traditional astronomical platform of the Chinese at the time, they constantly petitioned to the Emperor of Ming dynasty for approval of the establishment of a new specialized body and use of the Western method to revise the applicable Datong Calendar X.M. that had many errorsFang H.Li Zhizao yanjiu [Li Zhizao Research]. Taibei, 1966. P. 179; Xu J.L. Ershisi shi quanyi (Di san ce) [The full translation of twenty-four sets of History books (vol. 3)]. P. 424.. It was approved by Chongzhen X.M. - the last king of Ming dynasty. In 1629, Calendar Bureau MM was founded, and some Jesuit missionariesWhen Calendar Bureau MM was founded in 1629, two Jesuit missionaries, Niccolo Longobardi f| MM and Johann Schreck MB, were involved in revising the calendar here. However, because Niccolo Longobardi paid more attention to the mission, in fact, the work of revising the calendar was in charge of Johann Schreck. After Johann Schreck died (1630), two other Jesuit missioners named Johann Adam Schall von Bell MXM and Giacomo Rhocontinued to revise the calendar here. Thus, from 1629 until

1634, the year of completion of the revision of Datong Calendar XXM, there had been four Jesuit missionaries working at Calendar Bureau. See: Xu G.Q., Wang Z.M. Xu Guangqi ji (Xia ce) [The complete works of Xu Guangqi (vol. 2)], Shanghai, 1984. P. 343-344, 427-428; Song J.L. Ming mo liju yu Xixue Dong jian [The Calendar Bureau and the introduction of Western science in the end of Ming dynasty] // Xinyang Shifan Xueyuan Xuebao (Zhexue Shehui kexue ban) [Journal of Xinyang Normal University (Philosophy and Social Sciences Edition)]. 2006. Vol. 4. P. 122-123. were invited to revise Datong Calendar X.M. With the constant efforts of the missionaries as well as of some Chinese astronomers familiar with Western math calendar, by 1634, the Western-style revised calendar had been completed and called Chongzhen Calendar XMM. It would not be an exaggeration to say that it was an encyclopedia introducing the contemporary Western astronomy into China. The first part of the calendar presented the theories of the Western astronomy, while the second part included the calculated and compiled astronomical tables on the basis of astronomical theories in the first part. Chongzhen Calendar introduced to China the theory of the universe system by the Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe for the first time. Besides, the knowledge related to our planet - sphericity of the Earth; longitude and latitude of the Earth; methods of calculation and measurement - was accepted by the Chinese also through Chongzhen Calendar, which contributed to the joint development path of the world astronomy at the time. In particular, the head of the Calendar Bureau MM Xu Guangqitaught Western astronomy to students at the Bureau of Astronomy of the Ming dynasty with the purpose of equipping them with the principles and methods of calculating the Western calendarXu G.Q., Wang Z.M. Xu Guangqi ji (Xia ce) [The complete works ofXu Guangqi (vol. 2)]. Shanghai, 1984. P. 374..

However, when this calendar was not yet ready for practical use and considerable benefits to the mission as Jesuits had expected, the political event of “dynasty replacement” occurred: the Ming dynasty collapsed, and the Manchu people started to rule China in 1644. It swept away as a flood all achievements by the Jesuit missionaries with respect to astronomical knowledge. In such a context, the missionary Johann Adam Schall von Bell - one of the most important people directly in charge of revising the calendar in the late Ming dynasty - with other Jesuit missionaries decided to take a bold and risky step: to continue using the Western astronomical knowledge, and through revision and compilation of the calendar reach out to the rulers of the Qing dynasty, a newly emerged dynasty skeptical about everything related to the Ming dynasty, in order to seek for the smallest opportunity to stay in China to preach the Gospel. As Helmer Aslaksen wrote in his work “The Mathematics of the Chinese Calendar”, “In 1644 he went to the new Qing rulers and presented his calculations for an upcoming solar eclipse on September 1. At this time the Manchus were suspicious of the Chinese, but Schall told them that they could trust him, because he was a foreigner like them. This worked, in spite of the fact that other Jesuits were busy supporting Ming loyalists in the South. He challenged the Chinese and the Muslim astronomers in the Bureau, and again the Jesuits' calculations were best”Aslaksen H. The Mathematics of the Chinese calendar. Department of Mathematics, National University of Singapore.. In the following year (1645), the missionary Johann Adam Schall von Bell respectfully offered the so called Shixian Calendar MM, which was compiled according to the new Western method on the basis of the summary and reduction in scale of Chongzhen Calendarcreated in the late period of the Ming dynasty, to the Qing dynasty Xiyang xinfa lishuYang Y.P Qintianjian li de chuanjiaoshi [Missionaries in Bureau of Astronomy] // Wenshizhishi [Literature and History knowledge]. 2002. Vol. 4. P. 4.. This work not only helped the Chinese people access the astronomical theory and method of calculation as well as the system of knowledge related to the contemporary Western astronomical instruments but was also considered an achievement of cooperation between Jesuit missionaries headed by Johann Adam Schall von Bell and Chinese astronomers in translating Western astronomy works, which opened up to the Chinese learned men the method of calculating the calendar of the West in a more accurate manner than the traditional way. Later, the eighteenth century witnessed the birth of a series of other calendar-astronomical works under the Qing dynasty such as Lixiang Kaocheng M.M. (Summation of measurements and observationsPegg R.A. The Star Charts of Ignatius Kogler (1680-1746) in the Korean Court // Journal of Jesuit studies. 2019. Vol. 6. P. 46.), Lixiang Kaocheng Houbian (Later volumes of the summation of measurements and observationsIbid.), which were typical examples showing an increasingly deep influence of the Western astronomy on China. In fact, the above-mentioned calendar works were designed and created by Western missionaries working at the Bureau of Astronomy at that timeLixiang Kaocheng and Lixiang Kaocheng Houbian were compiled and revised by two Jesuit missionaries named Ignaz Kogler and Andrй Pereira. See: Pfister L. Notices biographiques et bibliographiques sur les jйsuites de l'ancienne mission de Chine. Vol. 2. P. 647, 653..

Secondly, the Chinese adopted the Western astronomy through the design, manufacture, and improvement of astronomical instruments as well as through the creation and revision of catalogue of stars carried out by the Jesuits during their work at the Bureau of Astronomy of the Ming dynasty and Qing dynasty in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. In the late period of the Ming dynasty, the necessity of using Western astronomical instruments for astronomical observations and meteorology to serve the calculation and compilation of the calendar was recognized. Xu Guangqi - the high-rank mandarin appointed by King Chongzhen to manage the work in the Calendar Bureau MM at that time even petitioned to the king twice in July and September 1629 for his approval of the creation of several Western astronomical instruments that the Chinese had never known before: quadrant, sextant, astrolabe, celestial globe, terrestrial globe, sun-dial, star-dial, telescopeXu G.Q., Wang Z.M. Xu Guangqi ji (Xia ce) [The complete works ofXu Guangqi (vol. 2)]. Shanghai, 1984. P. 336, P. 341-342.. After that, the design and manufacture of the astronomical instruments were assigned to the missionaries Johann Schreck, Johann Adam Schall von

Bell M.M., Giacomo Rho S. In 1634, along with the completion of the calendar revision, these astronomical instruments were also madeXu J.L. Ershisi shi quanyi (Di san ce) [The full translation of twenty-four sets of History books (vol. 3)]. P. 436.. In particular, the introduction of the telescope into China, through the manufacture activity of Jesuit missioners during this period, considerably supported the process of observing and examining solar and lunar eclipses conducted by Chinese mandarins working at the Bureau of Astronomy of the Ming dynasty. Jesuits not only designed and manufactured the aforementioned astronomical instruments, they also included some information related to them, such as their design, size, texture, function, in the content of Chongzhen Calendar- the main document for Chinese scholars studying Western astronomySong J.L. Ming mo liju yu Xixue Dong jian [The Calendar Bureau and the introduction of Western science in the end of Ming dynasty] // Xinyang Shifan Xueyuan Xuebao (Zhexue Shehui kexue ban) [Journal of Xinyang Normal University (Philosophy and Social Sciences Edition)]. 2006. Vol. 4. P 123. at that time - which facilitated the reception of the Western astronomical achievements by Confucian scholars in the contemporary Chinese society.

In the Qing dynasty, in 1673, a Belgian missionary Ferdinand Verbiest helped the Bureau of Astronomy of this dynasty to successfully manufacture 6 astronomical instruments, including equatorial armillary sphere cliptic armillary sphere horizon circle sextant, quadrant MMM and celestial globe

Subsequently, from 1713 to 1715, the German missioner Kilianus Stumpf also helped the Bureau of Astronomy to manufacture a new type of horizon circle combining the features of the two previously used instruments - a quadrant and acelestial globe, and the German missionaries Ignaz Kogler and Augustin Ferdinand von Hallerstein, who worked at the Bureau of Astronomy during the reign of Qianlong Emperor, improved the armillary sphere - turning a traditional Chinese astrological observation instrument into an elaborate equatorial armillary sphere between 1746 and 1754Zhang B.C. Ming Qing cetian yiqi zhi Ouhua [The Europeanization of astronomical instruments in the Ming and Qing China]. Shenyang, 2000. P. 161-170. See more: Yao C.S. Qingdai Qintianjian de tianwen gongzuo [Astronomy activities of the Qing dynasty Qintianjian] // Guangxi Minzu Xueyuan xuebao (Ziran kexue ban) [Journal of Guangxi University for Nationalities (Natural Science Edition)]. 2004. Vol. 2. P. 44; Needham J., Wang L. Science and Civilisation in China. Vol. 3. Cambridge, 1959. P. 451-452. Pan N. Zhongguo gu tianwen yiqi shi [History of Chinese ancient astronomical instruments]. Taiyuan, 2005. P. 184-196. in order to expand its performance and enhance its accuracy in astronomical observations.

In addition, in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, a catalogue of stars was created in the Bureau of Astronomy of the Qing dynasty - a task frequently performed by Western astronomers, but not really common to the Eastern astronomy. Undoubtedly, this astronomical work was introduced to China by Jesuit missionaries who also played a leading role in the process of observing, calculating and creating catalogues of stars; thereby the Chinese could expand and acquire a great deal of Western astronomical knowledge. In fact, from 1669 to 1673, at the Bureau of Astronomy of the Qing dynasty, a missionary Ferdinand Verbiest and 31 Chinese astronomers and scholars compiled Ling tai yi xiang zhi rnmimin which equatorial and ecliptic coordinates of more than 1870 fixed starsYao C.S. Qing dai Qintianjian de tianwen gongzuo [Astronomy activities of the Qing dynasty Qintianjian] // Guangxi Minzu Xueyuan xuebao (Ziran kexue ban) [Journal of Guangxi University for Nationalities (Natural Science Edition)]. 2004. Vol. 2. P. 44. were published in volumes 5 to 14. For more than half a century later (1675-1743), this catalogue of stars played an extremely important role at the Bureau of Astronomy of the Qing dynasty serving as the basis for calculating celestial phenomena. However, in 1744, due to the discovery that the data of the position of the fixed stars in book Ling tai yi xiang zhi rnmim was incorrect, the German Jesuit missionary Ignaz Kogler, Director of the Bureau of Astronomy, and 26 Chinese astronomical mandarins and scholars working at the Bureau during the Qing dynasty were assigned the task of calculating, revising, correcting and adding to the catalogue of stars created by Ferdinand Verbiest in 16691673 and of compiling the series Yi xiang kao chengin cluding 32 volumes, in which up to 30 volumes were catalogues of stars listing 300 constellations and specifying equatorial and ecliptic coordinates of 3083 stars and axial precessions and magnitudesIbid. P. 45..

Thirdly, the Chinese received the Western astronomy through the compilation and translation of the Western astronomical bibliography into Chinese language by Jesuit missionaries in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Upon arriving in China, Jesuits realized that this was a nation with a long-standing cultural and educational background. Chinese people, especially kings, mandarins and intellectuals in the contemporary society attached great importance to scholarship and bibliography, which made Jesuits think of a unique method of mission - “missionary bibliography translating or compiling some books related to Western science and technology, including astronomy, to serve its mission. In fact, from the end of the sixteenth century to the end of the eighteenth century, many books of various Western scientific and technical fields were compiled or translated into Chinese by Jesuit missionariesXu Z.Z. Ming Qing jian Yesuhuishi zheyi tiyao [Summary of Jesuits translated works in Ming and Qing dynasties]. Shanghai, 1949.. However, astronomy amounted to 89 booksAccording to the statistics of the author Ma Zhentao MSft, from 1584 to 1790, the number of Western science and technology bibliographies translated into Chinese by Jesuit missionaries was 137, including 20 mathematical books (14,6%), 89 astronomical books (65%), 6 physical books (4,4%), 8 biological and medical books (5,8%), 8 military science books (5,8%), 3 books recording many fields (2,2%). See: Ma Z. T. “Xixue Dong jian” yu “Dongxue Xi jian” - Ming mo Qing chu chuanjiaoshi keji fanyi de lishi wenhua yujing [Historical and cultural context of missionary sci-tech translation in late Ming and early Qing dynasty] // Yuwen xuekan [Journal of Language and Literature Studies]. 2010. Vol. 8. P. 83. In his study, the author Hu Xianyuanconducted statistics on more fields, however, the leading position in terms of the number of Western astronomical bibliographies translated into Chinese in the sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth centuries kept unchanged compared to other fields of science and technology. See: Hu X.Y. Cong “Ming Qing jian Yesuhuishi yizhu tiyao” kan Zhong Xi xueshu jiaoliu [On Chinese and Western Academic Exchange from the perspective of “Summary of Jesuits translated works in Ming and Qing dynasties”] // Sichuan Tushuguan xuebao [Journal of The Sichuan Society for Library Science]. 1996. Vol. 6. P. 78. See more: Bernard H. Les Adaptations Chinoises D'ouvrages Europeens: Bibliographie Chronologique Depuis la Venue des Portugais а Canton Jusqu'а la Mission Franзaise de Pйkin 1514-1688 // MonumentaSerica. 1945. Vol. 10. P. 1-57, 309-388., two-thirds of the total number of scientific and technical books compiled and translated at that timeMa Z.T. “Xixue Dong jian” yu “Dongxue Xi jian” - Ming mo Qing chu chuanjiaoshi keji fanyi de lishi wenhua yujing [Historical and cultural context of missionary sci-tech translation in late Ming and early Qing dynasty] // Yuwen xuekan [Journal of Language and Literature Studies]. 2010. Vol. 8. P. 83.. The following table presents some translated or compiled works by Jesuit missionaries in China in the late Ming and early Qing period.