The History of the Medieval Papacy at the Imperial St. Petersburg University

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Article

The History of the Medieval Papacy at the Imperial St. Petersburg University

I.P Potekhina, PhD in History, Associate Professor, St. Petersburg State Institute of Technology, St. Petersburg, Russian Federation

The purpose of this article is to investigate the history and content of scholarly studies devoted to the history of the medieval papacy at St. Petersburg University of pre-revolutionary times. The tasks of the article include both the study of historiographical sources, and a survey of disciplines related to the history of the medieval papacy taught at the Faculty of History and Philology of the University in 1819-1917. The author draws attention to the fact that this subject of educational courses and scholarly research for a long time remained “unpopular” among St. Petersburg medievalists. However, a real outline of university research in the field of “papal history” in historiography still hasn't been done. The main way to identify the required courses of historical and ecclesiastical nature was to analyze university editions known as “The Announcements of Public Teaching of Sciences” and “Surveys of the Teaching of Sciences at the Imperial St. Petersburg / Petrograd University” and now accessible to a wide audience thanks to the portal “History St. Petersburg University in Virtual Space”. The author also refers to the materials collected during the biographical and prosopographical studies of the Center for History of St. Petersburg State University and concentrated in a number of network dictionaries (“The Network Biographical Dictionary of Professors and Teachers of St. Petersburg University” etc). On the basis of the data obtained, the author draws a conclusion about the extent to which the pre-revolutionary university research in the field of the history of the Holy See was developed and promising in reality.

Keywords: history of St. Petersburg University, history of the medieval papacy, history of the high school, St. Petersburg historical school, faculty of history and philology.

История средневекового папства в Императорском Санкт-Петербургском университете

И.П. Потехина, канд. ист. наук, доц., Санкт-Петербургский Государственный технологический институт (Технический университет), Российская Федерация, Санкт-Петербург

Цель настоящей статьи -- исследовать историю и содержание научных штудий, посвященных истории средневекового папства в Петербургском университете дореволюционного времени. В задачи статьи входит как изучение историографических источников по заявленной теме, так и обзор дисциплин, в той или иной степени связанных с историей средневекового папства и преподававшихся на историко-филологическом факультете (в 1835-1850 гг. -- философском) Санкт-Петербургского университета в период с 1819 по 1917 г. Автор обращает внимание на то, что данная тематика учебных курсов (а также научных исследований), важность которой для понимания средневековой истории в целом трудно оспорить, в течение долгого времени вообще оставалась «непопулярной» среди петербургских медиевистов, и реальная характеристика университетских изысканий в области «папской истории» в историографии до сих пор отсутствует. Основным способом выявления искомых учебных курсов исторической и историко-церковной направленности стал анализ внутриуниверситетских изданий, известных как «Объявления публичного преподавания наук в Императорском Санкт-Петербургском университете» и «Обозрения преподавания наук в Императорском С.-Петербургском / Петроградском университете», в наши дни доступных широкой аудитории благодаря порталу «История Санкт-Петербургского университета в виртуальном пространстве». Автор также обращается к материалам, собранным в результате биографических и просопографических изысканий, проведенных сотрудниками Центра истории СПбГУ, и сконцентрированным в ряде сетевых биобиблиографических словарей («Сетевой биографический словарь профессоров и преподавателей Санкт-Петербургского университета (1819-1917)», «Сетевой биографический словарь историков Санкт-Петербургского университета (XVIII-XX вв.)», «Петербургская историческая школа (XVIII -- начало XX в.): информационный ресурс»). На основании полученных данных, сведенных в специальную хронологическую таблицу, автор делает заключение о том, насколько в действительности были развиты и продуктивны дореволюционные университетские исследования в области истории св. Престола. Ключевые слова: история Петербургского университета, история средневекового папства, история высшей школы, петербургская историческая школа, историко-филологический факультет.

For many years, Russian medievalists, including those working at St. Petersburg University, have been aspiring to a prominent place in world medieval studies and openly declaring their achievements to be comparable to those of European and American medieval studies. Indeed, sometimes such persons as Eugene Shmurlo, Lev Karsavin, paleographers Olga Dobiash-Rozhdestvenskaya and Alexandra Lyublinskaya, and few other Russian historians appeared to be familiar to the Western scholarly public -- mainly thanks to their outstanding activity in some specific historical spheres. Meanwhile, the overwhelming majority of medievalists who worked (and are working now) in Russia remains unknown to foreign colleagues. Among them one can mention a number of specialists in the history of the medieval papacy -- a theme that remains invariably marginal in our medieval studies as a whole. This very feature of Russian and particularly St. Petersburg “school of medievalists” seems to be more than remarkable.

As the coryphaeus of European medieval studies Georg H. Pertz (1795-1876) wrote after his brief visit to Vatican archives in 1823, “the keys of Peter are still the keys of the Middle Ages”. Thus, to deny the importance of papal and ecclesiastical subjects for understanding the entire medieval history is at least unreasonable. Despite this, St. Petersburg school of medievalists has produced a very small number of works on the history of the medieval papacy and prominent names of historians who dealt with this topic. Without going into detail about the reasons of this historiographic situation, let us try to clarify a number of specific “statistical” issues connected with St. Petersburg studies of papal history. How many experts on the history of the medieval Catholic Church and papacy who worked at St. Petersburg University during the period of its pre-revolutionary heyday (1819-1917) can be mentioned? Who introduced the Holy See to local students? How did it happen and what was the scale? From what positions was the history of the medieval pontiffs presented to students? On what historiographical foundation did the teachers and professors rely? And, finally, what potential of Russian pre-revolutionary scholarship about the medieval papacy can be discovered on the basis of the pedagogical practice of the capital's capita university?

To answer these questions, we used the latest network databases created by members of the Center of the History of St. Petersburg University in 2011-2018. Among them there are the electronic library of the portal called “History of the St. Petersburg University in Virtual Space” and series of biobibliographic network dictionaries of university professors and teachers (particularly historians) and employees. First of all, we examined the internal university publications available in the electronic library and known as “The Announcements of Public Teaching of Sciences at the Imperial St. Petersburg University” and “Surveys of the Teaching of Sciences at the Imperial St. Petersburg / Petrograd University”. Secondly, materials of the biographical articles on the teachers of the Department of World History and the Department of Church History (and also the all-university Department of Theology) were analyzed as well. On the basis of the data obtained we succeeded in forming a table reflecting the teaching of disciplines somehow related to the history of the medieval papacy, for the period from 1819 to 1917.

history medieval papacy study

Table 1 - Courses and disciplines potentially connected with the history of Medieval Papacy (1819-1917)

Despite some lacunae, the table represented here clearly shows that courses that could affect the history of the medieval papacy were taught at the Faculty of History and Philology (in 1835-1850 at the I Department of the Faculty of Philosophy) almost regularly. At the same time, the topic of our interest was touched on either within the framework of courses on secular (political) history or within the theological and church-historical courses. However, with reference to the studies devoted to the University of the 19th century, we can assume that the success of this “touching” in terms of giving any significant and voluminous information about the Holy See was comparatively rare. Between the 1810s and the 1840s the theme of the Catholic Church remained strictly secondary for the members of the University. Most of them in their own scholarly research (and apparently in lectures as well) focused more on the problems and subjects of Antiquity (M. S. Ku- torga) or on the history of the Eastern and Russian Orthodox churches (G. P. Pavskii, A. I. Raikovskii, especially after 1846). The only work on the history of the medieval papacy originating from St. Petersburg University in the middle of the 19th century was the essay by M. S. Kutorga “History of the Papal Power before Charlemagne and the Restoration of the Western Roman Empire” (1850). Among the most frequent manuals for students (in case when we can find references to them in the “Announcements of Public Teaching of Sciences”) there was a variety of home-grown and translated textbooks of the late 18th -- early 19th century, and sometimes even non-attributable lecturer's “own notes”. And only with M. S. Kutorga's joining the Department of World History (1835), some “German textbooks” were put into practice. As for the Department of Theology, its teachers usually recommended that their students learn church-history courses from manuals for church schools and theological academies. It is worth adding that the excessive fascination with the “Latin West” and the “Latin Church”, even from an exclusively scientific point of view, at that time also could not develop because of specific political and ideological position of the university leaders and the Ministry of Enlightenment.

Anyway, the dismissal in 1821 of E. B. Raupach, the chief “specialist” on the world history, and his accusation within so-called “Professors case” of lecturing “in the spirit opposing Christianity” (in fact, Orthodoxy) unambiguously demonstrates the ideological and religious obscurity of the then university system of the Russian Empire. Similarly, various bans on overseas academic trips or internships of students to some specific foreign universities (for example, to Heidelberg, Jena, Wuerzburg) could not contribute to raising the level of teaching secular and ecclesiastical world history.

The situation began to change for the better in the 1850s, when Kutorga's student Mikhail Stasyulevich now considered in historiography to have been the first true St. Petersburg medievalist was employed by the Department of World history. His attention to the comprehensive coverage of the entire history of the Middle Ages, including that of the Western Church, manifested itself in his anthology called “History of the Middle Ages in Its Writers and Investigations of the Modern Scholars” -- a number of its sections being directly devoted to the development of the papacy and papal authority. However, the period of his work at the university appeared to have been vexingly short. After Stasyu- levich's retirement, the tradition of systematic teaching of the history of the Middle Ages at St. Petersburg University was continued by another Kutorga's student V. G. Vasilevsky.

In the 1860s, another important event occurred for St. Petersburg pre-revolutionary scholarship of medieval Western Christianity: a special Department of Church History was created at the University in order to “intercept” the historical courses of the former Department of Theology (1863). Since the middle of the 1870s, “Surveys of the teaching of sciences” systematically had informed of the titles of disciplines taught by the professors of this department -- among them “History of the Western Church”, “History of the Western Church from the East-West Schism to the Reformation” (I. E. Troitsky), “History of the Universal Church from Constantine the Great to the East-West Schism” (B. M. Melioransky). Unlike the courses of the Department of Theology, their lectures were based primarily on foreign studies and textbooks (though not always “fresh” enough in comparison with the contemporary European scholarship dynamically developing), such as “General History of Christian Religion and Church” by A. Neander, “Studies in Church History, Archeology and Liturgy” by K. J. Hefele, “Handbook of General Church History” by J. Hergenrother and so on. Finally, the manuals on the history of the Western church began to be created by the teachers of the department themselves. The inclusion of practical lessons on sources and historiography of the Eastern and Western Churches into the curriculum of the department also seemed to be a very important innovation (1889-1892, 1903-1904).

The lithographically published lectures of the 1880s and 1890s clearly demonstrate that the professors of the Department of Church History were fully aware of the importance of the phenomenon of papal authority and the papacy institution for studying Western Christianity as a whole. Let us pay attention at least to the introductory remarks made in the lectures of I. E. Troitsky:

“The center of all church events in my lectures will be Rome, or rather, the papacy, which was a great driving force in the history of the Western Church”.

“The central point to which all the functions of the Western Church <.. .> were reduced, about which its vital interests were grouped, which finally set the tone and direction of its activity, created its history, was the papacy”.

The presentation of the specific historical material in these lecture manuals was arranged in accordance with a clear periodization (dividing the history of the Western church into the epochs from Nicholas I (858-867) to Gregory VII (1073-1085) and from Gregory VII to the Reformation), and sometimes was extremely detailed. Actually, in some aspects of papal history, the author of the lectures, I. E. Troitsky, showed an acquaintance with the latest and most relevant European historiography. Nevertheless, some nuances remained for the lecturer -- and, therefore, for his audience -- a kind of terra incognita (alluding, for example, to papal administrative body, papal finances and sources of income and so on).

And yet, it is no exaggeration to say that up until the end of the 19th century there had been regrettably few works on the history of the medieval papacy written by St. Petersburg university historians . It was especially surprising as in the other university centers of the Russian Empire there had been already a little army of historians dedicating themselves to the “papal” studies -- moreover, some of them were graduates of St. Petersburg Historical and Philological Faculty but began to study the history of the Holy See only after leaving their alma mater.

Similarly, St. Petersburg historians did not hurry to settle down in the Vatican archives -- although there already had been such an opportunity for Russian scholars in general since the mid-1810s, when, after the Napoleonic wars, in the wake of the formation of the new system of international relations, the papal throne officially admitted representatives of such countries as Austria, England, Denmark, Russia and Sweden to its library and the archives. The turning point for the community of world medievalists that happened in 1881, when Pope Leo XIII (1878-1903) opened for the researchers and students of Catholic universities a substantial part of the Vatican Secret Archive (Archivium Secretum Apostolicum Vaticanum, now Archivio Segreto Vaticano (ASV)), also remained unnoticed in Russia.

More or less substantial scholarly interest in this huge and undoubtedly significant collection of documents in Russia began to arise slowly only at the very turn of the 19th- 20th centuries, and in terms of academic science manifested itself in the appointment of a special scholarly correspondent of the Imperial Academy of Sciences in Rome (since 1903 E. F. Shmurlo) and publication of a series of academic collections under the general title “Russia and Italy”. However, the most promising scholarly projects of this time connected with the creation of the Russian Historical Institute in Rome (analogous to the other “Roman Historical Institutes”), were doomed to stay unrealized.

Some, albeit peculiar and one-sided, revival of interest in the medieval papacy (primarily among secular historians of St. Petersburg University) occurred only in the 1890s, when a series of courses on the late medieval church (especially the period of the Avignon Captivity of popes and the Great Western Schism), was introduced by professor G. V. Forsten, previously specializing in the history of Scandinavia and the Baltic region. Unfortunately, his own interest did not go beyond lecture classes with students (and seminars in 1904-1905). Grave disease and death in 1910 prevented him from developing this new research topic in the framework of any notable scholarly scientific publications, and the interests of his numerous students (the so-called “forstenyata”) practically did not concern the history of the Western church. The same can be said about the Slavic historian V. E. Regel (by coincidence, he read the course of the history of the Crusades) and about professor I. D. Andreev, who entered the department of church history in 1909 and led lectures (and, more importantly, seminars) on the history of Western Christianity and the papacy for more than ten years. His own scholarly interests, reflected in the articles and essays, were concentrated exclusively on the Byzantine church. And the overwhelming majority of his students also chose the Byzantine studies.

In this context, the development of the “school” of the professor of the Department of World History I. M. Grevs, nowadays (and even in the Soviet times) represented in historiography as the founder of St. Petersburg professional medieval studies) seemed to be more promising. Anyway, it was I. M. Grevs who had brought up by the beginning of the 1910s a number of specialists among his numerous students whose studies appeared to be purposely dedicated to the different issues of the Western Church. From the point of view of the papal history, the central place in his school belonged to P. B. Shaskolsky, whose activities in both pedagogical and scholarly spheres were entirely devoted to the medieval pontiffs (in the spotlight of his articles and courses there were issues related to the formation of the monarchical power of the early medieval papacy). However, other

M. Grevs' university students -- L. P. Karsavin, O. A. Dobiash-Rozhdestvenskaya -- also did not ignore the papal history, touching on the Holy See (in their publications, as well as in the courses taught at the University and other educational institutions of St. Petersburg / Petrograd) in the context of their own research topics, such as the development of medieval culture and religiosity, the daily life of medieval society, and so on.

An important aspect of this situation, in our opinion, was that both the educational courses and the scholarly achievements of this generation of St. Petersburg university medievalists (in their own research and work in the section of the Middle Ages of the editorial board of the New Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron, etc.) in a certain sense, supplemented each other, illuminating the history of the medieval papacy and the process of its emergence as a powerful institution from quasi different sides. It seems quite probable to us that if these historians had been able to continue their studies at the same pace and in the same field (using newly arising institutional possibilities such as investigation of ASV), by the 1920s and 1930s in Petersburg / Petrograd University, there would possibly have developed a distinctive school of the history of the medieval papacy. But the subsequent political and socio-cultural changes that occurred in Russia upon the establishment of Soviet regime, in fact, brought to a close the achievements (though not very great) of this young historiography. The only “bridge” that connected the pre-revolutionary studies of the papacy and its Soviet “successor” was the author of the first Marxist “History of the Papacy”. It was Samuil G. Lozinsky (1874-1945), the principal and, in fact, the only researcher who dealt with the issues in question for almost the entire Soviet period. Yet, his contact with the university's historical scholarship was extremely fleeting.

Thus, having a sufficiently large potential and nearly all the institutional opportunities for development, St. Petersburg university studies in the history of the medieval papacy remained practically in a rudimentary state -- and this situation continued up to beginning of the post-Soviet period.

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