The city of the mad and the city of the dead

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The city of the mad and the city of the dead

Guaragna Gianfranco, University of Trieste

Abstract

«Madness is not something extraneous to life, but a human possibility that is in us, in each of us, with its shadows and its emotional incandescence. Sadness and anguish are human experiences not unrelated to our existence».

Eugenio Borgna

From the beginning of the second half of the fifteenth century onwards, the idea of the impending presence of death dominates. The “End of Times” takes the form of a plague and wars, but at the end of the century this anxiety is transformed, death and its seriousness are replaced by a mockery of madness.

“Madness is the approach of death,” Foucault clarifies, but madness is also her defeated presence, as constant clues about the already reigning death reign only indicate that this goal is difficult to achieve. In fact, "the head that will be the skull is already empty."

On the other hand, we find in the laughter of a madman only that he laughs looking at the smile of death. This is the connection between death and madness, which manifests itself in different forms.

When, on the threshold of the nineteenth century, people began to think that the soul could become so sick that it would need a doctor, psychiatry was bom, and along with it the medical treatment of the soul.

In the era of general changes, when the attitude not only towards mental illnesses, but also to the places designated by them, changed, there were radical changes in the urban structures of the main cities of Italy, in the structure of which in the second half of the 19th century "cities of the dead" were formed.

Nevertheless, the "city of the dead" and the "city of the crazy", although both of these concepts are included in the concept of a "closed city", are two objectively different realities that are comparable only in strictly philosophical terms: physical death and social.

Keywords: insane asylum, cemetery, architecture, city.

Абстракт

Город безумных и город мертвых

Гваранья Джанфранко, Университет Триест

С начала второй половины пятнадцатого века и далее доминирует идея надвигающегося присутствия смерти. «Конец времён» принимает вид чумы и войн, но в конце столетия это беспокойство трансформируется, смерть и ее серьезность сменяется насмешкой безумия.

«Безумие - это приближение смерти», - уточняет Фуко, но безумие - это также и её побежденное присутствие, так как постоянные подсказки об уже наступившем царствовании смерти только лишь указывают на то, что эта цель сложно достижима. На самом же деле, «голова, которая будет черепом, уже пуста».

С другой стороны, мы находим в смехе сумасшедшего только то, что он смеется глядя на улыбку смерти. Это и есть связь между смертью и безумием, которая проявляется в разных формах.

Когда на пороге девятнадцатого века люди начали думать о том, что душа может заболеть настолько, что ей потребуется врач, родилась психиатрия, а вместе с ней медикаментозное лечение души.

В эпоху общих перемен, когда изменилось отношение не только к психическим заболеваниям, но и к предназначенным им местам, произошли радикальные изменения в урбанистических структурах главных городов Италии, в структуре которых во второй половине XIX века образовались "города мертвых".

Тем не менее, «город мертвых» и «город безумных», хотя они оба этих понятия включены в концепцию «закрытый город», представляют собой две объективно различные реальности, которые сопоставимы между собой только в строго философских терминах: физическая смерть и социальная.

Ключевые слова: сумасшедший дом, кладбище, архитектура, город.

There is that old joke about the "madman" who from behind the fence of the asylum asks a passer-by on the outside: "What's it like in there?".

Of course, the context of the dialogue, making the question paradoxical, raises hilarity, but in reality behind the story lies an irrefutable truth. In fact, according to Ed-Гваранья Джанфранко, 2020 mund Husserl if we delve into our own experiences we find those of the stranger and from there we may build a philosophical bridge between ourselves and others. And since Husserl encounters and indicates the madness of the other, we, according to the latter, should be here, with us and at the same time be there, outside of us, and consequently, the interior must also be an exterior, and the exterior must also be an interior¹. To explain this, Pier Aldo Rovatti relies on the efficacious example of the Moebius strip, where precisely inside and outside merge by overlapping².

Many will probably remember Crime and Punishment, when Zosimov, urged by Dimecka to intervene in the discussion to support and corroborate what she had just said to reassure Raskol'nikov, namely that certain things can also happen to the sane, says: «... indeed, we are all, and very often, almost all of us alienated, with the only small difference that the 'sick' are a little more alienated than we are... »³.

Alienation, explains Umberto Galimberti, means being far from one's essence, being elsewhere⁴. And if for Hegel, the word 'alienation' concerned the unhappy fact that from within we are troubled by the realization that there is something outside our interiority that has to do with us, according to David Cooper, the alienation concerns a split in an original unity, adding, however, and also explaining why, it is in the sphere of the human⁵.

This same rift brings us back to the term in which psychiatry and philosophy, according to Galimberti, find their agreement; and they find it precisely around the word schizophrenia, whose etymological meaning comes from phren (mind) and schizo (split). The mind is split into two worlds, and as one refracts into the other, it is unde- cidable as to which of the two is the real world⁶.

However, madness, as Rovatti says, is diversity and at the same time fear of diversity. We are afraid of diversity and we defend ourselves by drawing boundaries and building protective walls¹. And it is precisely fear that connects throughout the history of mental illness, incurable diseases and madness; fear that leads to social exclusion and strict separation.

Foucault in his History of Madness points out that from the early Middle Ages until the end of the Crusades there were numerous leprosariums spread throughout Europe⁸, but in the second half of the Sixteenth Century lepers are no longer found in such designated places and, in short, these structures will be populated by the incurably ill and insane.

The disappearance of this scourge, of course, was not due to the effect of obscure medical practices but was rather the spontaneous result obtained thanks to the subsequent interruption of the eastern outbreaks of infection which, through the Crusades, had been the cause of the spread of the disease in Europe.

Leprosy, therefore, retreating, Foucault explains again, leaves those miserable places empty and renders unnecessary those rites that, however, were not intended to suppress it but rather to keep it at a consecrated distance ⁹.

With the disappearance of the disease, the facilities intended for lepers will later be occupied by the poor, vagabondsjuvenile offenders "nutters" who under the same mechanisms of exclusion take the place of the leper.

To begin with, however, the places previously occupied by lepers will be taken over by those suffering from venereal diseases who, from the end of the fifteenth century, will be welcomed into the numerous existing leper hospitals¹⁰. With a whole new meaning and in a very different culture, the same forms of separation will nonetheless remain, these being social exclusion and spiritual reintegration.

To some extent the venereal diseasesdissociate from their medical context and integrate, alongside madness, into a moral space of exclusion; yet the true legacy of leprosy will be madness, which medicine would take charge of only after a few centuries had passed. And madness, like leprosy, as a secular fear will provoke reactions tending to separation, exclusion and purification.

In this historical context, the Ship of the Mad makes its appearance, a strange boat that sails along the rivers of the Rhineland and the Flemish canals, which will soon occupy a privileged place in the imaginary landscape of the Renaissance.

The Narrenshiff is a literary creation borrowed from the old cycle of the Argonauts, but of all the romantic or satirical vessels found in this period, the Narrenshiff s the only one with concrete reality, because these boats that carried their human burden from one city to another did in fact exist.

The mad often lived a wandering existence; they were driven out of their cities and when not entrusted to a group of merchants or pilgrims, they were left free to roam around over distant countryside. However, it often happened that they were entrusted to boatmen, although, explains Foucault, it is not easy to discern the precise meaning of this custom. It could probably be assumed a general measure by which municipalities targeted mentally ill people in a state of wandering. It is a hypothesis, however, that cannot by itself clarify the facts, since it happens that certain madmen, even before special facilities are built for them, are welcomed at hospitals. On the other hand, in most European cities, as already mentioned, throughout the Middle Ages and the Renaissance there were places of detention reserved for the alienated. Therefore, they are not always turned away.

The problem is certainly more complex since there are gathering places for crazy people, such as pilgrimage sites. These pilgrimages were organized and sometimes subsidized by cities or hospitals and, according to Foucault, the boats that had gripped the imagination of the whole of the early Renaissance may have in fact been just pilgrim boats. Highly symbolic ships of senseless people searching for their reason; some descended the rivers of Rhineland to Belgium, others went up the Rhine¹². In this way, the preoccupation to heal and to exclude came together, enclosing them within the sacred space of the miracle¹³.

In any case, if we look at the numerous examples found in art and literature of the period, one can understand how much the face of madness, starting from the fifteenth century, has obsessed the imagination of western man.

As Cacciari explains, Humanism is a time of crisis marked by catastrophic events. During this period, madness is perceived as an element always lurking, and therefore, to fight it, it will be necessary to know and represent it. It will, therefore, be thought ironic in all the meanings of the term "irony"; that is, an inexorable combination of laughter and crying, of Democritus and Heraclitus. It is, therefore, necessary, Cacciari further explains, to arm ourselves with a Zogoscapable of understanding this world in itself, if we do not want to become overwhelmed¹⁴.

Human existence, in fact, until the second half of the fifteenth century and beyond, is dominated by the looming presence of death; and the end of time takes on the appearance of plagues and wars. It is an order that no one escapes, yet in the final years of the century, this great restlessness is transformed: the derision of madness takes the place of death and its seriousness. "From the discovery of that necessity that fatally reduced man to nothing, we moved on to the contemptuous contemplation of this nothingness, which is existence itself'¹⁵.

Madness is the advance of death, specifies Foucault, but it is also its vanquished presence, since announcing in these daily clues that it already reigns, those same clues indicate that its prey will be a meagre booty: the head that will be skull is already empty. What we find in the madman's laughter is that he laughs in advance of the laughter of death, and the senseless, presaging the macabre, has disarmed him. The substitution of the theme of madness for that of death therefore does not mark a break but rather a twist within the same uneasiness / itself¹⁶.

We will find this relationship between death and madness in different forms later on and, as we will see later, even the places destined to host them will share a relationship that at the same time unites and contrasts them.

Starting from Mario Galzigna's book La Malattia Morale / The Moral Disease¹⁷ which, through notes, letters and short memoirs, reconstructs the origins of psychiatric knowledge, Galimberti states that if madness is a human event and man is an event of history, it is not in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders that a sense of madness can be found but in the books of philosophy of history, such as this by Galzigna. In fact, Galimberti shows us through his research - in courts, where madness is judged; in asylums, where it is controlled; in churches, where it is welcomed and pitied; in families, where it is expelled; - how moral and religious disciplines have laid the foundations for knowing what normality and deviance are, and how psychiatry, from its birth, took the lead over moral and religious doctrines, secularizing itself. That is, it exchanged the notion of salvation, by which morality and religions had been inspired, with that of health, which the medical sciences are concerned with. For the rest, Galimberti continues, everything has remained the same: containment, discipline, rituals, order, coexistence, education, with a few more pills in place of fewer words¹⁸.

It is also true, however, that an esteemed psychiatrist like Eugenio Borgna, who believes in a psychiatry fiercely opposed to any restraint and contrary to pharmacological shortcuts, considers the DSM (the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic Manual), as the negative and arid sum of the worst psychiatry¹⁹.

However, we know that after the French Revolution, on the threshold of the nineteenth century, people thought that the soul could fall ill and thus required a doctor of the soul, for which psychiatry was bom and with it the medicalization (iatric) of the soul.

Philippe Pinel, followed by his pupil and successor Jean Etienne Domenique Esquirol, distancing himself from the anatomical-pathological approach, introduces a new conception of the mentally ill individual by separating him from all other social outcasts with whom he was commonly associated, thus freeing the illness from the climate of mystery and superstition that had enveloped it. The insane, in so far as being ill, 'mentally ill' to be precise, must be treated, and the cure is internment, which from then on would be decided as a matter of law affirmed through a medical certificate.

We are in an era of general change that, of course, does not only affect the way we relate to mental illness but in the second half of the nineteenth century, even in Italy, together with the radical urban changes that will give a new structure to the main centres of the country, the "city of the dead"was bom and later developed.

During those years, the city was seen as the favoured setting for displaying the newfaces of power, and all the large urban centres of the new unitary state were consequently affected by a series of major interventions that, starting with the demolition of the old city walls, went as far as gutting entire neighbourhoods to make way for the new representative buildings and the large roadways that were to connect the railway station with the city centre. However, as Restucci explains, what passes is logic by separate parts, and the cities regenerate in every available sector according to the design of the bourgeoisie in power ²⁰.

With the appearance of a new bourgeoisie, animated by Risorgimento sentimentalism, which in the first place accords art and literature a function with moral and pedagogical content, these values representative of the changed socio-political conditions with which all Italian culture of the time is permeated, do not even go beyond the world of death. The sentiments and "buonevirtu" that characterize the post-unification society in the minds of the bourgeois classes are also found in the cemeteries, which - arising on the edge of the city based on the sanitary motives set out in a Napoleonic decree of 1804, precisely starting from the second half of the nineteenth century when the representation of life becomes part of the world of death in a disruptive way - undergo a complete transformation²¹.

As Philippe Aries explains ²², the concept of death in the western world is entirely transformed over time, and what in previous centuries was considered a natural event, in the nineteenth century began to take on different connotations: being aware of the imminent arrival of one's end is now no longer perceived as a divine gift that allows one to redeem oneself from sin, but on the contrary, the act of passing on is transformed into a painful event that tears us inexorably from values and affections.

The exasperated depiction of the real world, which in this period is expressed in countless statues and bas-reliefs on burials mounds and tombstones, therefore replaces that essential idea of beauty and death, so dear to the classical tradition, and the values of the family and workplace, now become the fundamental values for the rising bourgeoisie, are translated into sculptural groups and funerary monuments in which all the paraphernalia of objects or characters from daily life are represented with great attention to detail²³.

The pedagogical solicitation, as well as in literature, therefore also finds its fundamental field of application precisely in the city of the dead, where the different genres of scenes of bourgeois life - marriage, the affectionate mother, the devoted wife, the good father or husband, the widow's greeting, premature death, charity as the ethic of giving - take on the tone of the narrative; all with a strong connection to the city of real life.

Those representative symbols of the city of the living thus become part of the "city of the dead": classic buildings marked by gables and columns, Gothic churches, Egyptian temples and architecture with indefinite borders, become the architectural models to be inspired by when creating the family chapels which, re-fashioned on a reduced scale and dispersed in single representations without any relationship among them, configure a chaotic city shrouded in silence; a "deafening silence" of an "other city" where, as Foucault reminds us, "every family has its dark dwelling"²⁴.

From famous monumental to unknown provincial cemeteries, burial sites gradually become a proliferation of gruesome representations of the life of the disappeared that, sometimes, despite the apparent contradiction that the term can take in such a context, frankly verges on the ridiculous.

Beyond the socio-cultural aspect and the symbolic and representative content of the moment, however, there is an important fact to note: that although the cemetery takes the closed city as a model, and therefore can offer architecture a very wide field of action, the theme will not be able to transform itself into an opportunity for experimentation, ending up simply reflecting and amplifying all the contradictions present in the real city.²⁵.

There is instead another theme that will be developed in Europe during the same years, whose approach, certainly less rhetorical, will lead to completely different results: that of the asylum, which, in fact, despite having the same closed city as its model, and precisely because it is "forced" to act within the rigid dictates recommended by the manuals of the time that make the scientific and functional aspects in the design criteria prevail over the symbolic and celebratory, will offer itself as an opportunity for the application of solutions related to urban planning techniques, which will undoubtedly take on more interesting connotations than those experienced in cemeteries.

Moreover, while in the cemeteries during this period, the striking contrast between the diverse stylistic references of individual chapels - manifesting the most complete indifference to the general composition of the system - will cause the shattering of space, in the "city of fools", on the contrary, the artefacts intended for the various functions, using a uniform architectural language, are arranged in an orderly manner on a structure fashioned by a rigid hierarchical order, within which, according to a principle of symmetry, the space is cadenced by the balanced division between green area and built.

In any case, the "city of the dead" and the "city of fools", although both referable to the concept of "closed city", represent two objectively distinct realities, which cannot be compared to each other except in strictly philosophical terms (the physical and social death).

On the other hand, it is also true that the two different architectural types, although decidedly different in their peculiar components, also have clear analogies that unite them, one of which is the presence of the fence wall, on which it is necessary to focus attention for a moment, as this is precisely the element that represents the limit according to which the cemetery and the asylum will somehow emerge in the territorial context as separate entities and, in different terms, the "other cities"; essentially configuring itself - to say it with Foucault - as two different forms of heterotopia¹⁶.

The wall, in its apparent simplicity, expresses an intrinsically complex concept. In architecture, it is an element full of meaning that translates into a subject of great disciplinary importance precisely because of the symbolic implications that are concentrated in it. On the other hand, the word Faradis, which in the Qur'an indicates paradise, in the Persian language represents "the place enclosed by walls", which, perhaps, gives us the measure of how important this archetype is not only for western culture.

The wall, in any case, is in general a limit of rearrangement, as it delimits, marks a border, but as Heidegger points out, "The border is not where something ends, but, as the Greeks recognized the border, it is that from which something begins its essence»²⁷.

And in a world full of references and allusions, as is that of the cemetery, where the architectures are only symbolic representations of themselves within a reality inhabited by simulacra, in this world, clearly separated from the city, to which at the same time it is closely linked when it reproduces its paradoxical emulation, however much one tries to delude oneself by clinging to improbable symbols, the wall represents that immovable boundary from which the realm of death begins its essence.

The city of mental illness, on the other hand, is completely foreign to the city. It represents the place where reason does not compromise with the world of finality and the city and the "other city", as Tafuri reminds us, "... are two different urban universes, of two opposite and complementary cities: that of reason, of constructive intentionality, aimed at producing and being produced, and that in which reason is suspended, from which every productive urge has disappeared, a place of infinite care and intellectual vacuity / exhaustion » ²⁸.

Yet, as Tafuri further writes, "the enchanted mountain has its own purpose: the cure. In this sense, it is closely linked to the real city, which constitutes its horizon» ²⁹;and the wall, in this case, while it becomes the boundary that marks the sad beginning of the infinite cure, and therefore of the psychic malaise in its essence, like the Leopardian hedge, it is precisely from that horizon that "sight excludes".

However, we must not forget, Yourcenar reminds us, that "... any construction only builds a ruin"³⁰, and the asylum wall, like all walls, will sooner or later be destined to fall.

Now, what we are interested in highlighting, of course, is not the question of the mental hospital specifically, but the fact that thanks to this intervention methodology, in which roughly the same organizational principles are reproduced in a latent way through which planning projects of this period will aspire to determine the design of the urban plot, those same walls, with ignorant foresight regarding the Orsini reform - universally recognized to be the Basaglia Law ³¹ - which from thenceforth and after many years will erase the asylums, unknowingly they will preserve important parts of the urban territory that will prove to be valuable for their future reuse.

Writing, in fact, like architecture, is by definition indifferent to the meaning of the written word, and this is precisely the meaning of the research on typology that will lead Aldo Rossi to the elaboration of a theory in which the architectural type is the predominant factor for the persistence and adaptability of buildings to changing uses.

Consequently, this type of intervention, despite its aim to develop an organism which is free of the city, and therefore characterized by a settlement system that also leaves out any hypothesis of correlation with the overall design of the urban plot, when it assumes its precise typological configuration, but above all for the very concept of living that drives the construction of mental hospitals of the period, through the theories of architecture and the most advanced sanitary engineering, to never lose sight of the centrality of the human being to the design criteria, beyond the specific function for which the system was conceived, thanks to the peculiarity of its architectural components, at any time it can easily change its intended use and be returned to the city.

The architectural structure of the asylum, setting itself up as a universe in its own right, in derogation to the principles of urban composition, organizes the development of its form and spaces in a completely indifferent way to the texture and structure of the city. Nevertheless, precisely this sort of abstraction - from the context to which this type of architectural intervention almost inevitably tends - will cause the structure, when it ceases to be a place of confinement, to become a place of integration; that is, a place for everyone, returned to the city and civil life, revealing its hidden heritage made of greenery, spaces and architectural artefacts that, held together by an orderly texture, represent the huge and unexpected legacy that the "other city" devolves to the city and its inhabitants.

Finally, it should also be noted that when the spaces and structures of the asylum are returned to the city, in addition to offering the possibility of using its artefacts for other activities, the architectural complex, for what it represents, will take over a further and perhaps more important function: that of a monument that, in this case, devoid of any rhetoric, and like any monument, will be there to admonish and remember; to remember "the most extreme form of marginalization", and warn that this should not happen again.

dead madness urban city

Notes

1. «This bridge, which Husserl calls 'inter-subjectivity', is indispensable for all our thoughts and actions" [...] But the point that interests us is that Husserl himself encounters and indicates the madness of the other. The solution is actually paradoxical, but precisely for this reason also significant: we should be here, with ourselves - literally, says Husserl - and at the same time be there, outside of ourselves, the interior must also be an exterior, and the exterior must also be an interior».

Rovatti Pier Aldo, La follia, in Poche Parole /Madness, in Few Words, Bompiani, Milano, 2000, p.42

2. «There is an image borrowed from the topology, which is often used to have an approximation representative of this other folly/madness: the Moebius strip. It is easy to obtain a model: we cut out a strip of paper and then glue the extreme edges to make a circle, but being careful to turn one of the edges through 180 degrees when attaching it to the other. The paper circle we obtain possesses a strange property: inside and outside seem to merge. If we imagine travelling along the outer surface of the circle at some point we find ourselves on the inner surface and vice versa if we start from a point on the inner surface. There is an interior and an exterior, but they are no longer distinguishable». Ibid, pp. 52-53

3. DostoevskijFedor, Crime and Punishment, Mondadori, Milan, 2018 (Reprint) p. 299

4. Galimberti Umberto, Idee: ilcatalogo e questo / Ideas: this is the catalog, Feltrinelli, Milano, 2001, p.14

5. «Alienation concerns a split in original unity, though it “must be added" into the human sphere". The word "alienation" has a long history. For Hegel it concerned the unhappy fact that from within we are troubled by the realization that there is something outside our interiority (objectification and exteriorization) that has to do with us; there was a transition between the metaphysical interior and the exterior that could only be resolved in some type of masturbatory orgasm of the Abstract Spirit. [...] The "human sphere" comes from the operation of consciousness-action that generates reflexive consciousness (being aware of what we are essentially unaware of), which in turn, when systematized, generates knowledge». Cooper David, II linguaggiodellafollia/The Language of Madness, Feltrinelli, Milano, 1979,p. 67

6. Galimberti Umberto, Op. cit., p. 92

7. Rovatti Pier Aldo, Op. cit., p. 35

8. Foucault Michel, Storiadellafollianell'etaclassica /Madness and Civilization: A History of Insanity in the Age of Reason, Bur, Milano. 1981, p. 13

9. Ibid, p.16

10. Ibid, p. 17

11. Ibidem

12. Ibid, pp. 20-21

13. Ibid, p. 23

14. «Humanism is a time of crisis, a period of passage, marked by catastrophes events, a time when madness itself is perceived as always lurking, a madness that will have to be known and represented to be able to fight it, that is, ironized, in all the meanings of the term "irony", an inexorable combination of laughter and tears, of Democritus and Heraclitus. It is, therefore, necessary to arm yourself with a logos capable of understanding this world in itself, if you do not want to be overwhelmed (the image of the subversion of the greatness of Rome and the misery of the present age sometimes assumes, in the first Humanism, starting from Petrarch, an almost desperate tone - and it does not seem to me at all to be a mere literary topos)". Cacciari Massimo, La menteinquieta Saggiosu U'umanesimo / The Restless Mind: Essay on Humanism, Einaudi, Torino 2019, pp. 15-16

15. Foucault Michel, Op. cit., P. 29

16. Ibid, p.30

17. Galzigna Mario, La malattia morale Alleoriginidellapsichiatriamodema / The Moral Illness at the origins of modern psychiatry, MarsilioEditore, Venezia, 1988

18. Galimberti Umberto, Op. cit., p. 199

19. Borgna Eugenio, La folliache e anche in noi / The Madness That Ls Also Within Us, Einaudi, Milano, 2019

20. "If a spirit can be grasped in the construction operation connected with tbe arrival of the railway, it is determined by the interest in tbe station headquarters, for a new urban hub, from which to start a "march" towards the "Centre", proposing new road axes, gutting, acquiring areas. [...] It does not matter if, as often happens, behind these "representative" tracks, the urban structure remains unchanged and the traffic is poorly coordinated with a new road, a traumatic break against the paths and activities that previously integrated the various areas ". Restucci Amerigo, Citta e architetturadell' Ottocento / 19th Century City and Architecture, in Storiadell'arte italiana / History of Italian Art, Giulio Einaudi Editore, Torino, 1981, pp. 730-737-738

21. "The case of the" city of the dead "cannot be separated from what happens in the city; the burial place no longer needs to impose itself as a new construction dictated by sanitary needs, and as such can focus on the search for an identity: in the second half of the nineteenth century it became a precise reflection of the economic and cultural processes that characterize this historical period. [...] Society in the second half of the nineteenth century with its changes looks to the cemetery as a service, but moreover, it asks that in this there is a reference to its social status as well as to its own taste. The city of the dead as a "portrait" of the client is, therefore, rhetoric broken up into multiform architectural phrases, and, ultimately, singularly close to the city of the living, to the model from which it does not move away ...» RestucciAmerigo, op. cit. pp. 756-757

22. Aries Philippe, Storiadellamorte in occidente / History of Death in the West, Milano, BUR.SAGGI, 2001

23. «... curiously, it is precisely at the time when civilization became, as it is very roughly said "atheist", that western culture inaugurated what is called the cult of the dead. After all, it was normal that in the era when people believed in the resurrection of bodies and immortality of the soul, mortal remains were not of paramount importance. Instead, it is precisely from the moment when one is not too sure of having a soul that the body resurrects. Perhaps it becomes necessary to pay much more attention to these mortal remains, which are at bottom are just the trace of our existence through the world and words». Foucault Michel, Eterotopia, in Luoghi e non-luoghimetropolitani / Heterotopia, in Metropolitan Places and Non-Places, AA.W., Sesto San Giovanni (MI), Mimesis Edizioni, 1994,p.16

24. Ibidem

25. «... it is the image of the post-unification city with all its mythologies that is taken as the element to which all experiences can be traced: a symptom, which reveals how much even a seemingly separate place, the" city of the dead ", is not able to act as an experimental arena, as a flexible theme, but still as a further stage linked to the search for identity that distinguishes the path of Italian architecture of the late nineteenth century ». RestucciAmerigo, op. cit. p. 760

26. There are places that«... have the curious property of being in relationship with all other places, but in a way that allows them to suspend, neutralize, and invert the set of relationships that are themselves outlined, reflected, and mirrored. These spaces which in some way are linked to all others, which therefore contradict all other places, belong to two great typologies.

First of all, there are utopias. Utopias are spaces without a real place. They are locations/places that have a direct or inverted relationship of analogy with the real space of society.

It is the perfected society itself, or the opposite of society itself but, in any case, these utopias constitute fundamentally and essentially unreal spaces.

In every culture as in every civilisation, there are real places, actual places, places that appear to be outlined by the very institution of society and which constitute some sort of effectively created counter-places, especially utopias, in which the real places, all other places within the culture, are represented, disputed and subverted at the same time. This kind of site is located outside of any place, in as far as it can be effectively located. These places, which are quite different from all the places that reflect them and of which they speak, I will call, in opposition to utopias, heterotopias, which is undoubtedly a sort of mixed experience, as median as the mirror could be ». Foucault Michel. Heterotopia, op.cit. p. 13

27. Heidegger Martin, Costruireabitarepensare / Building Dwelling Thinking, in “Lotus bitemationar'n°9, Febbraio 1975, p. 41

28. TafuriManffedo, Am Steinhof, Centrality and "Surface" in the work of O. Wagner, in "Lotus Intemationar'no. 29, 1980, p. 76

29. Ibidem

30. Yourcenar Marguerite, Anna, soror..., in Соте Гacquachescorre, / Like Flowing Water Torino, Einaudi 1995, p. 55

31. Passed into history as the Basaglia Law, Law no. 180 of May 13,1978, was presented by the psychiatrist and parliamentarian Bruno Orsini.

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Bibliographic references

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3. Borgna Eugenio, La follia che e anche in noi, Einaudi, Milano, 2019.

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9. Foucault Michel JLterotopia, in Luoghi e non-luoghi metropolitani, AA.W., Sesto

10. San Giovanni (MI), Mimesis Edizioni, 1994.

11. Galimberti Umberto, Idee: il catalogo e questo, Feltrinelli, Milano, 2001.

12. Galzigna Mario, La malattia morale. Alle origini della psichiatria moderna, Marsilio Editore, Venezia, 1988.

13. Heidegger Martin, Costruire abitarepensare, in “Lotus Intemational” № 9, Febbraio 1975.

14. Restucci Amerigo, Citta e architettura dell'Ottocento, in Storia dell'arte italiana, Giulio Einaudi Editore, Torino, 1981.

15. Rovatti Pier Aldo, La follia, inpocheparole, Bompiani, Milano, 2000.

16. Tafuri Manfredo, AmSteinhof, Centralita e “superflcie” nell'opera di O. Wagner, in“Lotus IntemationaP'n. 29,1980

17. Tafuri Manfredoe Dal Co Francesco, Architettura Contemporanea,Mi\mo, Electa Editrice, 1976.

18. Tamburini, Ferrari, Antonini, L'assistenza degli alienati in Ltalia e nelle altre nazioni, Torino, 1918.

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