Cadres for the tsar and the state (XIX century)
The need of the bureaucratic state for universities. Analysis of the formation of the system of educational institutions that trained civil servants. Reforms carried out at the highest levels of government, the transition to a ministerial system.
| Рубрика | История и исторические личности |
| Вид | статья |
| Язык | английский |
| Дата добавления | 28.11.2021 |
| Размер файла | 1,5 M |
Отправить свою хорошую работу в базу знаний просто. Используйте форму, расположенную ниже
Студенты, аспиранты, молодые ученые, использующие базу знаний в своей учебе и работе, будут вам очень благодарны.
26 For more information about cameral sciences, see: Tomsinov V.A. Legal education and jurisprudence in Russia in the second third of the XIX century. M., 2010. P. 154-156. In Russian
27 For example, only 79 lawyers graduated from Petersburg University in 10 years (1823-1832)..
Cadet corps should be included among the educational institutions that provided training for the civilian department. In 1825-1850, 1265 of their graduates began their work in the civil service; 963 of them (an average of 37 per year) were immediately promoted to class ranks, while the remaining 302 began their careers as clerical workers [Belenkov, 1998. P. 44].
Despite the truly breakthrough in education and training of future officials, the shortage of qualified personnel in the state apparatus was still present. According to academician A.V. Nikitenko, in the middle of the XIX century (1861), 3000 official vacancies became available annually (a total of 80,000). And all existing Russia's universities, lyceums, and the School of Jurisprudence at that time produced annually 400 graduates27 [Nikitenko, 1955. P. 243]. The number of graduates with the appropriate level of education is notably small, they simply are not enough. Job places were mostly filled by people with a low level of education (more than half). The lowest percentage of workers with higher education was seen in the Ministry of Internal Affairs (over 70% of all officials with a low level of education).
Only in 1864, after judicial reform, there was a real increase in legal and state education. The number of universities has increased: Warsaw (1869) and Tomsk (1888) universities have been opened, the number of students in law faculties, as well as in specialized universities (School of Jurisprudence), lyceums, has distinctly increased. In the 70-80s of the XIX century, every third student in Russia was a law student. Vacancies both in the judicial department and in the administrative apparatus were quickly filled with educated officials.
By the end of the century, competition for admission to universities appears, and the system of promotion is improved in state institutions. This situation was sensitively caught by the authorities, using career elevators to promote the "necessary” or politically loyal officials. The career of "nasty freethinkers” could easily be slowed down or even ruined.
The lack of a unified educational policy in the training of officials was explained by the multi-departmental subordination of educational institutions: the Nikolaev and Demidov Lyceum were under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Education, The School of Jurisprudence - under the Ministry of Justice, the Military Law Academy - under the Ministry of Armed Force, the Imperial Lyceum - under the jurisdiction of the Empress Maria Fedorovna. All universities were subordinate to the Ministry of Education. In the second half of the XIX century, polytechnic and agricultural universities started providing specialists for public service.
By the end of the twentieth century, universities and sectoral schools (about 30 in total) successfully provided public service with specialists. In the period from 1898 to 1916, almost 90,000 civil servants were trained there, a third of them were lawyers. It is important to note that approximately 3/4 of the graduates became state employees, holding various positions in government [Melnikov, 2000. P. 181].
Figure 3. Imperial School of Jurisprudence
Figure 4. Demidov Lyceum
According to some contemporaries, the presence of a university diploma has become more necessary for a career than even the level of knowledge or patronage [Burnashev, 1972. P. 48]. The university and lyceum uniform became fashionable in an aristocratic environment. However, in the first half of the century, at all levels of the official bureaucratic sphere, the majority remained with those who "didn't go to universities”, with officials who, as M.A. Korf said, "only in the Code (Code of Laws of the Russian Empire - author) learned how to think and how to reason” [Korf, 1961. Vol. 2. P. 324-325]. Only in the second half of the XIX century severe changes took place.
Figure 5. Students of the School of Jurisprudence reading newspapers (second half of the XIX century)
Conclusion
Despite all the changes, the problem of the officials' level of education remained. In 1895, the commission created by the State Council to revise the Charter on the civil service concluded that only a third of those, who enter the civil service, had higher education, so, a suggestion was made to increase the educational qualification for acquiring the rank of an official [Melnikov, 2000. P. 185].
In 1903, an official of the Ministry of Internal Affairs, E.N. Berendts, in his note "On the Past and Present of the Russian Administration”, which he sent to the Minister of Internal Affairs, V.K. Pleve, pointed out the lack of special training for working as a government official being one of the serious personnel problems of the Russian management system [Berendts, 2006. P. 116-117]. He wrote, "It seems like participation in various activities of government requires less specialized education than counting stars, treating people or preaching” [Berendts, 2006. P. 118]. In his opinion, the exception was only the legal department, because since the opening of the School of Jurisprudence (1835), it was staffed with professionally educated lawyers.
At the beginning of the XX century, due to articles published in the Sputnik chinovnika journal, representatives of the public service paid attention to the problem of professional training of officials (1911-1914 - we dedicated a separate chapter to it). Along with discussing many topical problems of officials, the magazine also conducted surveys about their needs, how, in their opinion, problems could be solved. Among such issues were the problems of special education of officials, and the case concerned not only narrow-profile, clerical but also humanitarian education related to philosophical questions about human activity [Chevtaeva, 2006. P. 69-70].
Among other things, there were suggestions such as one proposal to create a specific system of education for officials, the initial stage of which should be considered reading books on the history of culture, primitive and modern political economy. Then the author of the proposal suggested moving to essays on sociology, and at the end to a more abstract level - the history of philosophical thought and philosophy of history, after which there should have been a turn to the specifics - the thoughts on the social issues of Russia [Craving for light, 1913].
A new link in the system of professional education of officials at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries was the training committees at departments that were created to optimize the work of personnel. They considered questions and suggestions on the pedagogical part, draft charters of educational institutions, teaching programs, and training instructions, carried out the selection of textbooks on special and general subjects, and recommended them for publication; committees determined questions on the scholarly part in educational institutions of the department.
For example, for the period 1900-1907, in the training committee of the Ministry of Finance, there were 4 divisions: universities, commercial educational institutions, technical and craft educational institutions, art and industrial educational institutions. In January 1917, a Professional Education Bureau was established in the training department. The Bureau was in charge of such matters as collecting information on the state of professional education in Russia and abroad, consulting institutions and persons on the issues of organizing professional educational institutions, gathering works and products of students in professional educational institutions, publishing manuals and a journal [Higher and central state institutions of Russia, 2001. Vol. 2. P. 172-173].
References
Annenkova E.A. The Imperial School of Jurisprudence. St. Petersburg, 2006. In Russian
Belenkov O.V. Development of the institute of public service of Russia in the second half of the 1850s: The dissertation of a candidate of historical sciences. St. Petersburg, 1998. In Russian Berendts E.N. On the past and the present of the Russian administration. Second edition. M., 2006. In Russian Bezrodny A.V On the preparation of qualified and educated officials for public service. Zhurnal Ministerstva yustitsii. 1903. No. 9 (November). In Russian
Burnashev V.P. Remembering the episodes from my private life and career (1834-1850). Russkiy Vestnik. 1872. No. 5. In Russian Chevtaeva N.G. Corporationism of the social-professional group of Russian civil servants: Sociological analysis. Yekaterinburg, 2006. In Russian
Chicherin B.N. Student years. Moscow University in memoirs of contemporaries. M., 1989. 415 p. In Russian Craving for light. Sputnik chinovnika. 1913. No. 29. Column 17-19. In Russian
Gymnasium of higher sciences and Lyceum of Prince Bezborodko. St. Petersburg, 1881. In Russian
Higher and central state institutions of Russia. 1801-1917. Volume 2. St. Petersburg: Nauka, 2001. In Russian Ikonnikov VS. Russian universities in connection with the course of social development. Zhurnal Ministerstva narodnogo prosvesh- cheniya. 1876. No. 11. In Russian
Kandaurova T.N. Gymnasiums. Essays on Russian culture. Volume 3.
The cultural potential of society. M., 2001. P. 69-94. In Russian Kodan S.V. God's grace official. M.M. Speransky and the Russian state. Yekaterinburg, 2001. 80 p. In Russian Kodan S.V. Legal policy of the Russian state in the 1800-1850s: figures, ideas, institutions. Ekaterinburg, 2005. In Russian Korf M.A. The life of Count Speransky. Volumes 1 and 2. St. Petersburg, 1861. In Russian
Melnikov V.P. Public service in Russia: The domestic experience of
organization and modernity. M.: RAGS Publishing House, 2000. In Russian
Milyukov P.N. Universities. Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron. Volume 68. M., 1993. In Russian Nikitenko A.V Diary: In 3 volumes. Volume 2. М., 1955. In Russian Plekhanov G.V. Our differences: Works. Volume 2. M., Pg., 1923. P. 315-316. In Russian
Rudenskaya S.D. Alexandrovsky-Tsarskoselsky Lyceum. 1811-1917. St. Petersburg, 1999. In Russian
Seleznev I.Y. Historical outline of the imperial former Tsarskoselsky now Alexandrovsky Lyceum for the first fifty years, from 1811 to 1861. St. Petersburg, 1861. In Russian Seredonin S.M. Historical overview of the Committee of Ministers' activity: In 5 volumes. Volume 2. Part 2. St. Petersburg, 1902. In Russian
Shepelev L.E. Bureaucratic world of Russia: XVIII - the beginning of
the XX century. St. Petersburg, 1999. P. 113-114. In Russian
Speransky M.M. On the improvement of universal public education.
Russkaya starina. 1907. No. 12. P. 730-735. In Russian Suzor G.P. To the day of the LXXXV anniversary of the Imperial College of Jurisprudence 1835-1910. Anniversary essay. St. Petersburg, 1910. In Russian
Tomsinov V.A. Legal education and jurisprudence in Russia in the first third of the XIX century. M., 2010. In Russian Tomsinov V.A. Legal education and jurisprudence in Russia in the second third of the XIX century. M., 2010. In Russian Vigel F.F. Filipp Filippovich Vigel's Notes. M., 1892. In Russian Wortman R. Rulers and Judges. M., 2003. In Russian Yuzhakov S.N. Peter the Great. Menshikov. Vorontsov. Dashkovs.
Speransky. St. Petersburg, 1898. 450 p. In Russian Zakharov V.V. How to prepare a lawyer: studying Russian recipes. Essays on the history of legal education in Russia in the second half of the XIX - early XX century. Kursk: Kursk State University, 2006. In Russian
Размещено на Allbest.ru
...Подобные документы
Boris Godunov (about 1552 - 1605) was the Russian tsar since 1598; came to power in the time of "oprichnina"; was the tsar Fedor Ivanovich's wife's brother and actually rulled the state instead of him.
реферат [15,0 K], добавлен 15.04.2006Features of the socio-political situation of the Kazakh people after the October Revolution of 1917. The creation of KazASSR in 1920, its internal structure of the state system, main stages of development and the economic and industrial achievements.
презентация [1,2 M], добавлен 01.03.2016Studying the main aspects of historical development of the British Parliament, its role in the governing of the country in the course of history. The Anglo-Saxon Witenagemot. The functions of the British Parliament in the modern state management system.
курсовая работа [70,5 K], добавлен 06.03.2014An analysis of the prosperity of the British economy in the 10th century. Features of the ascent to the throne of King Knut. Prerequisites for the formation of Anglo-Viking aristocracy. Description of the history of the end of the Anglo-Saxon England.
реферат [20,5 K], добавлен 26.12.2010Trade and industry of the England in the 16th century. Houses, its construction. Food in England in the 16-th century. Clothes for rich and poor people. Education in the country. A petty school. Oxford and Cambridge universities. The age of the marriage.
презентация [992,5 K], добавлен 28.04.2015Description of the economic situation in the Qing empire. State control over the economy. Impact on its development Opium Wars. Thermos trade policy of the government. Causes and consequences of the economic crisis. Enforcement of a foreign sector.
курсовая работа [77,7 K], добавлен 27.11.2014History of American schooling, origins and early development. Types of American schools. People, who contributed to the American system of education. American school nowadays in comparison with its historical past, modern tendencies in the system.
курсовая работа [52,8 K], добавлен 23.06.2016European heritage and civil government and the foundation of colonial America. Revolution, confederation and the federal Constitution, The foundation of Hamilton’s vision on the treasury. Utility and the prime end of all law. Ancient and modern virtues.
книга [905,1 K], добавлен 26.06.2008The world political and economic situation on the beginning of the twentieth century. The formation of the alliances between the European states as one of the most important causes of World War One. Nationalism and it's place in the world conflict.
статья [12,6 K], добавлен 13.03.2014Biographical information about the life of Soviet and Azerbaijani state, party and political figure Heydar Alirza oglu Aliyev. Becoming a political career and work as Russian President Vladimir Putin. Angela Dorothea Merkel is a German politician.
реферат [24,6 K], добавлен 20.10.2014The first modern socialists. What Marx did. The myth of anarchist "Libertarianism". Lassalle and state socialism. The Fabian model. Six strains of socialism-from-above: phіlаnthropіsm, elіtіsm, plаnnіsm, "communіsm", pеrmеаtіonіsm, socіаlіsm-from-outsіdе.
реферат [54,1 K], добавлен 21.06.2010History Semipalatinsk Medical University. The cost of training, specialty and duration of education. Internship and research activities. Student life. Residency - a form of obtaining an in-depth postgraduate medical education in clinical specialties.
презентация [509,2 K], добавлен 11.04.2015Humphrey McQueen's life. The mid-1960s: the moment of the radical student movement led by Maoists and Trotskyists. ASIO and state police Special Branches as record-keepers. H. McQueen's complex intellectual development, his prodigious literary activity.
эссе [60,0 K], добавлен 24.06.2010Theodore Roosevelt as the Twenty-Sixth President of the United States and passionate hunter, especially of big game. The original member of the American Institute of Arts and Letters. Electing him to the Assembly of New York State, governor of New York.
презентация [772,8 K], добавлен 12.11.2013Imperialism has helped countries to build better technology, increase trade, and has helped to build powerful militaries. During 19th century America played an important role in the development of military technologies. Militarism led to the World War I.
контрольная работа [20,2 K], добавлен 26.01.2012What is capitalism, the main points of this system. A brief historical background to the emergence of capitalism. Types and models of the capitalism in the globalizing world. Basic information about globalization. Capitalism in the era of globalization.
реферат [20,3 K], добавлен 15.01.2011Bourgeoisie and proletariat as two massive flows in France, which prepare and made revolution. French Revolution as an impact on the appearing the entire political events in the European countries. Democratic actions in Switzerland after revolution.
доклад [10,7 K], добавлен 14.04.2010The process of establishing the authority Tokugawa. The establishment of Tokugawa authority. The history of Japan during the power of this dynasty. Attention to the history of Japan during the reign of the Tokugawa. Features of the Bakufu-Han System.
реферат [23,9 K], добавлен 27.11.2011The most famous castle of St. Petersburg. This is Mikhailovsky Castle - "fortress" of Tsar Paul I. The construction of the castle on the site of the residence Summer Palace Elizabeth. The murder of Paul in the castle. Ghost of King Paul Petrovich.
презентация [1020,2 K], добавлен 15.11.2012The Arab Spring - a wave of demonstrations and coups that began in the Arab world December, 2010. Revolutions in Tunisia, Egypt and Yemen; civil wars in Libya and Syria; fall of the regime; mass protests in Algeria. The main slogan of the demonstrators.
презентация [3,0 M], добавлен 17.11.2014
