"The november breakdo wn" ("november action") 1918: a revolution or a military coup?

Analyze peculiarities of the historical event "The November Breakdown" ("November Action") - the national democratic revolution in the Western Ukrainian lands - not as a revolution in its classical version, but a military coup with the elements.

Рубрика История и исторические личности
Вид статья
Язык английский
Дата добавления 13.09.2022
Размер файла 21,9 K

Отправить свою хорошую работу в базу знаний просто. Используйте форму, расположенную ниже

Студенты, аспиранты, молодые ученые, использующие базу знаний в своей учебе и работе, будут вам очень благодарны.

Размещено на http://www.allbest.ru

«The november breakdo wn» («november action») 1918: a revolution or a military coup?

Ivan Monolatii

Abstract

november breakdo revolution

The purpose of the study is to analyze peculiarities of the historical event «The November Breakdown» («November Action») - the national democratic revolution in the Western Ukrainian lands - not as a revolution in its classical version, but a military coup with the elements of the national liberation struggle of Western Ukrainians in the autumn of 1918. On the basis of the historical and political analysis of the historiographical heritage concerning the preconditions and creation of the Western Ukrainian People's Republic, the events of October 31 - November 1, 1918, are described as discrepancies and generalizations of their direct participants; the research also clarifies the factors of political and ideological «explanations» of the revolutionary «November Breakdown» in historiography of the Ukrainian diaspora of the 20th Century. The Soviet and contemporary Ukrainian historiography statements about the «revolutionary nature» of the events in Eastern Halychyna in 1918, and hence the November 1918 national democratic revolution, are still debatable. Halychyna Ukrainians made a legal proclaimation of the Ukrainian state within the framework of the Austrian-Hungarian state, they were waiting for a peaceful transfer of power in Eastern Halychyna, and the armed uprising of October 31 - November 1, 1918, became a military coup in the geopolitical realities of the rising tension in the Polish-Ukrainian relations. Therefore, on November 1, the Austro-Hungarian government authorized an act of transfer of the state power in Eastern Halychyna to the Ukrainian National Council, and on November 13, 1918, the Council proclaimed Western Ukrainian People's Republic. The origins of the myth about the «revolutionary character», or «revolution» in Eastern Halychyna in 1918, are rooted in attempts to «inject» the non-existent in reality class struggle of the region population into the broader context of the Bolshevik and socialist revolution. During the Khrushchev Thaw, in 1957 this myth underwent certain modification in the famous article of historian O.Karpenko, and later on, in 1993, this myth transformation turned into a «national-democratic revolution» in Western Ukrainian lands. In fact, the memoirs of the participants and creators of the «November Action», the external sources, as well as the mass media of that, do not interpret the events under study just as "a revolution", but only as "a coup", "disarmament", etc., which testifies to the militaristic nature of events.

Keywords: revolution, military coup, Eastern Halychyna, Habsburg Monarchy, Western Ukrainian People's Republic.

Монолатій Іван. «Листопадовий зрив» 1918 року: революція чи переворот?

Мета дослідження полягає в аналізі особливостей історичного наративу Листопадовий зрив (Листопадовий чин) - національно-демократичної революції на західноукраїнських землях - не як революції в її класичному варіанті, а військового перевороту з елементами національно-визвольної боротьби західних українців восени 1918 р. На основі історико-політологічного аналізу історіографічної спадщини передумов і творення Західноукраїнської Народної Республіки охарактеризовано події 31 жовтня - 1 листопада 1918 р. як різночитання й узагальнення їх безпосередніх учасників, з'ясовано чинники політичних та ідеологічних «пояснень» революційності «Листопадового зриву» в історіографії української діаспори ХХ ст. Висновки. Твердження радянської та сучасної вітчизняної історіографій про «революційний характер» подій на Східній Галичині 1918 р., а отже Листопадову 1918 р. національно-демократичну революцію - досі дискусійне. Галицькі українці легальним чином проголосили Українську державу в межах Австро-Угорщини, очікували мирної передачі влади на Східній Галичині, а збройне повстання 31 жовтня - 1 листопада 1918 р. в геополітичних реаліях загострення польсько-українських взаємин стало доконаним фактом як військовий переворот. Унаслідок цього 1 листопада відбувся акт передачі державної влади у краї вповноваженим австро-угорського уряду Українській Національній Раді, а 13 листопада 1918 р. вона проголосила Західноукраїнську Народну Республіку. Витоки міфу про «революційний характер», «революцію» на Східній Галичині 1918 р. слід шукати у спробах «вписати» насправді неіснуючу «класову боротьбу» населення реґіону у ширший контекст більшовицької й соціалістичної революції. Модифікація цього міфу відбулася в умовах хрущовської «відлиги» 1957 р. у відомій статті історика О.Карпенка, згодом його трансформація 1993 р. обернулася «національно-демократичною революцією на західноукраїнських землях». Спогади безпосередніх творців Листопадового чину, джерела зовнішнього походження, а також тогочасна преса фактично не містять трактування досліджуваних подій саме як «революції», а лише - як «перевороту», «роззброєння» й т. д., що свідчить про їх мілітарний характер.

Ключові слова: революція, військовий переворот, Східна Галичина, Габсбурзька монархія, Західноукраїнська Народна Республіка.

Introduction

Besides the obvious tectonic shifts happening in the study of the "Ukrainian question” in history and political science and them being represented by several generations of contemporary Ukrainian and foreign researchers, the marked by the "spirit of the time" interpretation of the important nationbuilding events continues to dominate; it includes the events of the Ukrainian revolution of 1914-1923.

In 1996 Yaroslav Hrytsak conceptualized one of these shift, stating that "The November Action" of 1918 will eventually become one of the legends in the Ukrainian political ideology of the XX century." [2, p. 136]. He was surely right, as it was certainly a historical and ideological idea of this kind that already prevailed in the minds of historians at that time as an example of revolution. This approach was introduced in our historiography by Olexandr Karpenko, and it was undoubtedly an extraordinary and courageous step: in 1957 he decided to raise the question of the "nature of the revolutionary movement in Eastern Galicia in 1918," and in 1992 he conceptualized his idea as "the November national-democratic revolution in the western Ukrainian lands in 1918" [7, p. 13, 43]. The emphasis on the idea of revolution, moreover, in the national-democratic form, at the time of the independence restoration in the 1990s, proved the viability of the concept of ruptures/transformations of the historical time. After all, Ivan Lysyak-Rudnytsky wrote about "the all-Ukrainian significance of the Galician breakdown of 1918-19" [11, p. 53], alluding to something else - "the only example of the Ukrainian state order in recent history" [11, p. 56], but in no way was he calling these processes a revolution or revolutionary ones (these names were reserved only for the events in the Dnieper region). Apparently, Serhiy Plokhiy, a talented modern popularizer of the history of Ukraine, followed the same fashion, though more discreetly: "On November 1, 1918, Ukrainians attacked first." [19, p. 279].

The wording a "revolutionary padolist" [revolutionary November] used by Mykola Lytvyn and Kim Naumenko did not add to the understanding of this problem in their work "History of the Western Ukrainian People's Republic" in 1995 [13, p. 31], they meant "armed uprising on the night of November,1" in the first place [13, p. 34].

Modern academic generalizations are also difficult to understand. In "The Handbook of the Ukrainian History" of 2001, that included information mainly prepared by Lviv researchers, these events were called the "November Uprising of 1918" that is "the Ukrainian national liberation uprising that took place on the night of October 31 to November 1, 1918 in Lviv, and which resulted in the creation of the Western Ukrainian People's Republic" [4, p. 411]. The "Encyclopedia of the History of Ukraine" of 2009, which was authored by Kyiv scholars, calls the events of autumn 1918 the "November National Democratic Revolution in Galicia in 1918", and the slogan "November Action" made a reference to the "revolutionary" articles by Yu. Cherchenko [5, p. 161, 163].

Theoretical background

It is hardly a place and time to consider the historical preconditions of the autumn of 1918 (Ukrainian Soviet historians, historians of the Ukrainian diaspora, and well-known contemporary researchers, all wrote about it in a different way) [22, p. 45] that led to the events of October 31 - November 1, 1918. Another thing is important here: how did the participants of those events understand these actions? What did they call these events? Were they aware of the importance of what they were doing?

Research objective, methodology and data

The Mykhailo Hutsuliak, a contemporary of those events, saw them in a different light, he would qualify them as: an "exemplary disarmament and transfer of power into to Ukrainian hands in Lviv", "November Action in the western lands of Ukraine", "coup", "nationwide disruption", "November coup”, "Bloodless revolution" "[3, p. 5, 7, 98, 109, 129, 133, 138]. The author asks a natural question: "Was November, 1, 1918, really a nationwide "disruption"?" [3, p. 129]. And yet, brownie points for the interpretation of what actually had happened in Lviv and in the "Galician province" on the night of October 31 - November 1, 1918 did not belong to the author of the work "November 1, 1918, in the Western Lands of Ukraine...", because it appeared only in 1973. We must take a close look at different, second body of memoir sources.

Their charm is that they come directly from the participants of the events in Lviv, so to speak, from the "first echelon", the military themselves. First of all, it is Dmytro Paliiiv, whom M. Hutsulyak calls "the actual structural architect of the November Action" [3, p. 13]: in the memoirs published in 1928 for the first time, this military figure described the period under study as the "November Revolution" [20, p. 20]. However, despite the title of these memoirs, there is a variety of terms used: Ukrainian Sich Riflemen are reffered to as a "revolutionary center", Dmytro Vitovsky is called a "revolutionary", but stile the "November coup" or "Ukrainian armed action in Eastern Galicia" stand strong [20, p. 23-24, 3233]. In conclusion, D. Paliyiv speaks of November 1, 1918 as "the first stage-act of an armed coup", followed by the second one - the "consolidation of the gained and the creation of the state" [20, p. 38].

Another direct military participant of the Lviv events, Osyp Kuzma called the November days of 1918 "an act of coup d'etat in Lviv", "coup d'etat", "a great revolutionary affair" [8, p. 5, 56-68, 71] in his thorough study of events (1931).. Moreover, O. Kuzma's work contained excerpts from the orders to the district military committees in Eastern Galicia, which prompted "to take power on their own" [8, p. 58]. Summarizing the idea a primarily military nature of the November action, Myron Dolnytskyi wrote in his memoirs, "one can no longer deny that the November Disruption was primarily an outcome of revolutionary action of the military units, it was organized and put into action by the Ukrainian General Military Commissariat in Lviv on the night of October 31 to November 1, 1918." [21, p. 49].

Results and discussion

As we can see, the uprising on the night of October 31 - November 1, 1918, gave birth to a historiographical and political legend of the state creation of the Western Ukrainians in the XX century. Therefore, how should it be addressed: a revolution, a coup or an uprising?

Historical sources prove that the direct participants of the events of October 31-November 1, 1918 did not struggle with their interpretation; neither did they resort to terminological discussion of a kind; they perceived it as a rather self-evident, accomplished fact. Thus, the military and civilians relied on the main concepts such as "coup", "disarmament" and "seizure of power", all of which, in fact, became the basic markers of a qualitative change in the political situation that made a difference in the lives of Galician Ukrainians at the end of the Great War, creating the necessary preconditions for the imminent independent state establishment. While in the case of Lviv it was rather "disarmament", the cities and towns nearby perceived the events primarily as the military "takeover of power". Therefore, the term "coup" seems to be the most appropriate to describe the essence of the events of the late autumn of 1918; there were solitary examples when its contemporaries perceived it in the meaning of revolutionary transformations after some time, and, thus, it conveyed glorification. The interpretation of these events, especially the ones that took place in Lviv, as a Ukrainian military act became the cornerstone; it provided a standpoint for the basic characteristics of the national liberation struggle of Western Ukrainians during the XX century. Moreover, the shift of emphasis to the revolutionary nature of the November Action, its manipulation, politicization and ideologization with the following mythologization, all took place less than half a century later, and it was not by the will of the direct participants of this coup.

References

Богачевський Д. Ідеологічні основи листопадових подій. Філядельфія: Осередок Праці НТШ, 1959. [Bohachevskyi, D. Ideolohichni osnovy lystopadovykh podii. Filiadelfiia: Oseredok Pratsi NTSh, 1959].

Грицак Я. Нарис історії України. Формування модерної української нації ХІХ - ХХ століття. К.: Генеза, 1996.

[Hrytsak, Ya. Narys istorii Ukrainy: Formuvannia modernoi ukrainskoi natsii ХІХ-ХХ st. Kyiv: Heneza, 1996].

Гуцуляк М. Перший Листопад 1918 року на Західних Землях України зі спогадами і життєписами членів Комітету виконавців Листопадового Чину. Нью-Йорк: Ванкувер, 1973. [Hutsuliak, M. Pershyi Lystopad 1918 roku na zakhidnykh zemliakh Ukrainy zi spohadamy i zhyttiepysamy chleniv Komitetu vykonavtsiv Lystopadovoho chynu. Niu-York; Vankuver, 1973].

Довідник з історії України (А - Я). 2-ге вид., доопр. і доповн. К.: Генеза, 2001.

[Pidkova, І. & Shust, R. (Ed.) Dovidnyk z istorii Ukrainy (A-Ya). Kyiv: Heneza, 2001].

Енциклопедія історії України. Т. 6 (Ла - Мі). К.: Наукова думка, 2009.

[Smolii, V. (Ed.) Entsyklopediia istorii Ukrainy, 6, 161-162. Kyiv: Naukova dumka, 2009].

Західно-Українська Народна Республіка 1918-1923: Документи і матеріали у 5-ти томах. Кер. і відп. ред. О. Карпенко. Т. 1. Івано-Франківськ: Лілея-НВ, 2001.

[Karpenko O. (Ed.). Zakhidno-Ukrainska Narodna Respublika 1918-1923: Dokumenty i materialy (Vols.1-5) Ivano-Frankivsk: Lileia-NV, 2001].

Карпенко О. З історії Західно-Української Народної Республіки. Івано-Франківськ: ВДВ ЦІТ, 2006. [Karpenko, O. Z istorii Zakhidno-Ukrainskoi Narodnoi Respubliky. Ivano-Frankivsk, 2006.]

Кузьма О. Листопадові дні 1918 р. Зі шкіцами. Львів, 1931; Ню Йорк, 1960. Накладом видавничої кооперативи «Червона калина».

[Kuzma, O. Lystopadovi dni 1918 r.: Zi shkitsamy. Lviv; Niu-York: Chervona kalyna, 1960, 1931]

Кучабський В. Західна Україна у боротьбі з Польщею та більшовизмом у 1918-1923 роках; пер. з нім. Т. Лісної. Львів: ДВЦ НТШ, 2015.

[Kuchabskyi, V. Zakhidna Ukraina u borotbi z Polshcheiu ta bilshovyzmom u 1918-1923 rokakh. (T.Lisna, transl.) Lviv, 2015].

Левицький К. Великий Зрив (До історії української державности від березня до листопада 1918 р. на підставі споминів та документів). Львів: Видавнича кооператива «Червона калина», 1931; Нью- Йорк: Видавництво Чарторийських, 1968.

[Levytskyi, K. Velykyi Zryv (Do istorii ukrainskoi derzhavnosty vid bereznia do lystopada 1918 r. na pidstavi spomyniv ta dokumentiv). Lviv: Chervona kalyna; Niu-York: Vydavnytstvo Chartoryiskykh, 1968, 1931].

Лисяк-Рудницький І. Вклад Галичини в українські визвольні змагання, [у:] Іван Лисяк- Рудницький. Історичні есе. Том 2. К.: Основи, 1994.

[Lysiak-Rudnytskyi, I. Istorychni ese. (Ya.Hrytsak, transl.). Vol.2. Kyiv: Osnovy, 1994].

Литвин М. Р., Науменко К. Є. Історія галицького стрілецтва. Вид. друге. Львів: Каменяр, 1991. [Lytvyn, M.R. & Naumenko, K.Ye. Istoriia halytskoho striletstva. Lviv: Kameniar, 1991].

Литвин М. Р., Науменко К. Є. Історія ЗУНР. Львів: Олір, 1995.

[Lytvyn, M.R. & Naumenko, K.Ye. Istoriia ZUNR. Lviv: Olir, 1995].

Літопис Червоної Калини. VIII річник. Львів, 1936. Ч. 11.

[Litopys Chervonoi Kalyny, 1936, 11, 18-19].

Лозинський М. Галичина в рр. 1918-1920. Б. м., 1922.

[Lozynskyi, M. (1922). Halychyna v rr. 1918-1920, 1922].

Макух І. На народній службі. Дітройт: Видання Української вільної громади Америки, 1958. [Makukh, I. Na narodnii sluzhbi. Ditroit: Vydannia Ukrainskoi vilnoi hromady Ameryky, 1958].

Мірчук П. Перший листопад. Торонто: Ліґа Визволення України, 1958.

[Mirchuk, P. Pershyi lystopad. Toronto: Liga vyzvolennia Ukrainy, 1958].

Німчук І. Українська військова організація у Відні в днях перевороту (Причинок до історії будови Української держави в Галичині). http://komb-a-ingwar.blogspot.com/2008/11/blog-post_3493.html [Nimchuk, I. Ukrainska viiskova orhanizatsiia u Vidni v dniakh perevorotu (Prychynok do istorii budovy Ukrainskoi derzhavy v Halychyni). Retrieved from http://komb-a-ing- war.blogspot.com/2008/11/blog-post_3493.html]

Плохій С. Брама Європи. Історія України від скіфських воєн до незалежності. Друге вид. Х.: Клуб сімейного дозвілля, 2018.

[Plokhii, S. Brama Yevropy: Istoriia Ukrainy vid skifskykh voien do nezalezhnosti. (R.Klochko, transl.). Kharkiv: Klub simeinoho dozvillia, 2018].

Українська Галицька Армія у 40-річчя її участи у Визвольних змаганнях в 1918-1919 рр. Матеріяли до історії. Том ІІІ. Видав хорунжий УСС Дмитро Микитюк. Вінніпег, 1966.

[Ukrainska halytska armiia u 40-richchia yii uchasty u vyzvolnykh zmahanniakh v 1918-1919 rr.: Materiialy do istorii (1966). Vol. III. Vinnipeg].

Українська Галицька Армія у 40-річчя її участи у Визвольних змаганнях. (Матеріяли до історії). Видав хорунжий УСС Дмитро Микитюк. Вінніпег, 1958.

[Ukrainska halytska armiia u 40-richchia yii uchasty u vyzvolnykh zmahanniakh (Materiialy do istorii). Vinnipeg, 1958].

Цегельський Л. Від легенд до правди. Спомини про події в Україні звязані з Першим Листопадом 1918 р. Нью Йорк - Филаделфія: Булава, 1960. [Tsehelskyi, L. Vid legend do pravdy: Spomyny pro podii v Ukraini zviazani z Pershym Lystopadom 1918 r. Niu York; Filadelfiia: Bulava, 1960].

Шанковський Л. Українська армія в боротьбі за державність. Мюнхен: Дніпрова хвиля, 1958. [Shankovskyi, L. Ukrainska armiia v borotbi za derzhavnist. Miunkhen: Dniprova khvylia, 1958].

Ereignisse in der Ukraine 1914-1922 deren Bedeutung unter historische Hintergrьnde von Theophil Hornykiewicz. Band IV. Philadelphia, Pa., USA; Druck und Verlag Ferdinand Berger & Sцhne OHG, Horn, Цsterreich, 1969.

Размещено на Allbest.ru

...

Подобные документы

  • Wedding The Duke and Duchess of Gloucester November 6, 1935. Wedding Elizabeth and the Duke of Edinburgh November 20, 1947. wedding of Princess Anne and Captain Mark Phillips November 14, 1973. Wedding of Prince Charles and Princess Diana's July 29, 1981.

    презентация [3,7 M], добавлен 22.03.2014

  • Bourgeoisie and proletariat as two massive flows in France, which prepare and made revolution. French Revolution as an impact on the appearing the entire political events in the European countries. Democratic actions in Switzerland after revolution.

    доклад [10,7 K], добавлен 14.04.2010

  • Gordon Wood is Professor of History at Brown University. He is one of the leading scholars researching issues of the American Revolution in the country. Problems researching revolutionary nature of the American Revolution.

    реферат [21,4 K], добавлен 27.09.2006

  • Revolts and revolutions often occur in the course of history, however, revolutions are considered to be a more recent development. The Frondes and a revolt. The French revolution. The comparison of a revolution and a revolt.

    реферат [8,9 K], добавлен 09.12.2004

  • History is Philosophy teaching by examples. Renaissance, French Revolution and the First World War are important events in the development of the world history. French Revolution is freedom of speech. The First World War is show of the chemical weapons.

    реферат [21,6 K], добавлен 14.12.2011

  • The Industrial Revolution was a period in history when mankind found innovative and efficient ways of producing goods, manufacturing services and creating new methods of transportation.

    реферат [15,7 K], добавлен 28.04.2002

  • The Effects Of The Industrial Revolution. Change in Urban Society. The Industrial Revolution presented mankind with a miracle that changed the fabric of human behavior and social interaction. Economic growth. Economic specialization.

    реферат [23,8 K], добавлен 11.12.2006

  • Features of the socio-political situation of the Kazakh people after the October Revolution of 1917. The creation of KazASSR in 1920, its internal structure of the state system, main stages of development and the economic and industrial achievements.

    презентация [1,2 M], добавлен 01.03.2016

  • John Kennedy as the President of USA. His parents: Rose Elizabeth Fitzgerald and Joseph Patrick Kennedy. Education in Harvard university in 1936-1940 years. His serving in the US Navy. Electing Kennedy the President of USA in November 1960 year.

    презентация [3,3 M], добавлен 28.07.2012

  • Practical aspects of U.S. security policy from the point of view of their reflection in the "Grand strategy", as well as military-political and military-political doctrines. The hierarchy of strategic documents defining the policy of safety and defense.

    статья [26,3 K], добавлен 19.09.2017

  • Imperialism has helped countries to build better technology, increase trade, and has helped to build powerful militaries. During 19th century America played an important role in the development of military technologies. Militarism led to the World War I.

    контрольная работа [20,2 K], добавлен 26.01.2012

  • Aims, tasks, pre-conditions, participants of American war for independence. Basic commander-in-chiefs and leaders of this war. Historical chronology of military operations. Consequences and war results for the United States of America and Great Britain.

    презентация [4,8 M], добавлен 16.02.2013

  • European heritage and civil government and the foundation of colonial America. Revolution, confederation and the federal Constitution, The foundation of Hamilton’s vision on the treasury. Utility and the prime end of all law. Ancient and modern virtues.

    книга [905,1 K], добавлен 26.06.2008

  • How thе rеvolutіon wаs lost. Thе two rеvolutіons, cіvіl wаr. From sovіеt powеr to Bolshеvіk dіctаtorshіp. Kronstаdt аnd thе Nеw Еconomіc Polіcy. Thе pаrty, thе stаtе аnd thе workіng clаss 1921-28. Thе dіvіsіons іn thе pаrty 1921-29. Thе Lеft Opposіtіon.

    реферат [72,5 K], добавлен 20.06.2010

  • The dynamics of the Cold War. The War and post-war period. The Eastern Bloc, Berlin Blockade and airlift. NATO beginnings and Radio Free Europe. Crisis and escalation: Khrushchev, Eisenhower and destalinization. Warsaw Pact and Hungarian Revolution.

    реферат [81,7 K], добавлен 25.03.2012

  • The problem of the backwardness of the Eastern countries in the development of material production, its main causes. Three periods of colonial expansion and its results: the revolution of prices in Europe and the destruction of civilization in the East.

    презентация [79,1 K], добавлен 15.05.2012

  • Russia Empire in the XX century entered into a complex economic and political environment. Consequences of defeat of autocracy in war with Japan. Reasons of growing revolutionary motion in Grodno. Events of revolution of a 1905 year in Byelorussia.

    реферат [9,4 K], добавлен 14.10.2009

  • The Arab Spring - a wave of demonstrations and coups that began in the Arab world December, 2010. Revolutions in Tunisia, Egypt and Yemen; civil wars in Libya and Syria; fall of the regime; mass protests in Algeria. The main slogan of the demonstrators.

    презентация [3,0 M], добавлен 17.11.2014

  • Thе idеаs оf Gandhi who mаdе а mаjоr cоntributiоn tо thе Indiаn indеpеndеncе mоvеmеnt in 1919 by turning it tо а mаss оriеntаtiоn. Rеcruiting fоr thе British. Thе 1922 cаmpаign, Chаuri Chаurа bаckdоwn. Thе mоvеmеnt dеmоrаlisеd. Thе Bоmbаy nаvаl mutiny.

    реферат [55,0 K], добавлен 20.06.2010

  • The American Wars is an extremely complex and controversial topic. The United States Armed Forces are the military forces of the United States. The Army, Navy, Marine Corps, Air Force, Coast Guard. America in Great War, Korean War and Vietnam War.

    доклад [53,4 K], добавлен 11.09.2012

Работы в архивах красиво оформлены согласно требованиям ВУЗов и содержат рисунки, диаграммы, формулы и т.д.
PPT, PPTX и PDF-файлы представлены только в архивах.
Рекомендуем скачать работу.