Weapons in the graves of polovtsians women. A symbol of power or an attribute of the female warriors

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University of West Bohemia

weapons in the graves of polovtsians women. a symbol of power or an attribute of the female warriors

Introduction I give special thanks to PhD Lena Adamus for translating this paper.

High status of a woman in the Turkic environment was associated not only with her social role -- supervising a household, managing family property, giving birth to children and taking care of them. Chinese written sources reported that wives of the Turkic rulers participated in military operations, were regents ruling on behalf of their minor sons and performed prominent functions in religious rites Алексей Тишкин, Николай Серегин. Металлические зеркала как источник по древней и средневековой истории Алтая (по материалам Музея археологии и этнографии Алтая Алтайского государственного университета). (Барнаул, 2011), 121-122; Николай Серегин. Общие и особенные характеристики женских погребений раннесредневековых Тюрок Центральной Азии (к реконструкции некоторых аспектов гендерной истории). Вестник археологии, антропологии и этнографии. Электр. журн. 2 (17). (Тюмень, 2012), 67. http://www.ipdn.ru/_private/ va17.htm. Archaeological studies have confirmed the high status and importance of women in the environment of the early Turks. Female burials In the case cited both female and male burials of the nomadic tribal elite were considered. Lower social strata were buried in an archeologically impalpable way. were characterised with more abundant and more diverse inventories, in comparison with those deposited in male graves. Alongside deceased women saddled horse were laid. In addition to typical female sepulchral sets, female graves contained also artifacts marking male burials, including daggers and male belts, as well as luxury items, mainly Chinese imports: coins, toreu- tics (also mirrors), decorations, silk and lacquer vessels additionally stressing their high social status Николай Серегин. Общие и особенные характеристики, 64; Алексей Тишкин, Николай Серегин. Металлические зеркала как источник, 67-68.. An analysis of burials of women from the Altai region indicates a social stratification present within the privileged social group of equestrians itself, which in archaeological sources can be seen in small, however perceptible diversity of sepulchral donations Николай Серегин. Общие и особенные характеристики, 66..

The mythological pantheon of the early Turks included supreme deities: Tengri -- a personification of Heavens -- and Umay -- a goddess of fertility, life and death Элеонора Львова, Ирина Октябрьская, Андрей Сагалаев, Мансылу Усманова. Традиционное мировоззрение Тюрков Южной Сибири. Пространство и время. Вещный мир. (Новосибирск: Наука, 1988), 20. Umay was a female protective deity - a patron of women, in pregnancy, in maternity, infants and children, a deity of fertility (Леонид Потапов. Умай - божество древних тюрков в свете этнографических данных. Тюркологический сборник. 1972. (Москвa, 1973), 266-268). Umay had a dual nature. It was believed that she takes a form of Kara-Umay, a deity with chthonic features, taking souls from infants and protecting fallen warriors (Юрий Мотов. К изучению идеологии раннесредневекого населения Алтая по материалам могильника Кудыргэ. История и археология Семиречья. Сборник статей и публикаций. Вып. 2. (Алматы, 2001), 79).. In the imagination of people, their earthly counterparts were a pair of rulers -- kagan and qatun. The cult of Heaven and Umay, common among the Turkic and Turkic-speaking nations, played a significant role in sanctioning and sanctification of power. For social elites, rites, focus of attention on the pair of deities, known and worshipped by a numerous population of subordinated people, inhabiting vast territories, was of a special political importance Леонид Потапов. Умай - божество древних тюрков, 267, 285-286; Игорь Кызласов. Изображение Тенгри и Умай на сулекской писанице. Этнографическое Обозрение. 4. (Москвa, 1998), 47.. An impact of beliefs on sanctification of the ruler and his spouse was clearly visible in a layout of a space of mausoleums erected after a kagan died. A location of the pair of rulers played an important role Игорь Кызласов. О назначении древнетюрских каменных изваяний изображающих людей. Советская Археология. (Москвa, 1964). Вып. 2, 31.. In Asian territories anthropomorphic stelae were erected not only for kagans' spouses, but also for female members of the elite of equestrians. Sculptures presented female images dressed, for example, in horned headgear Gleb Kubarev. Ancient Turkic statues: epic hero or warrior ancestor? Archaeology, Ethnology & Anthropology of Eurasia. 1 (29). (Novosibirisk, 2007), 142.. Three-horn tiaras were considered attributes of heavenly deities A three-horn tiara is worn by Umay, represented together with her divine spouse Tengri on Sulek- skaya pisanitsa (Игорь Кызласов. Изображение Тенгри и Умай на сулекской писанице, 42 fig. 5), Umay from a rock in Kudyrge (Ibidem, 54, fig. 6), Umay engraved on the bone slat from Suttuu Bulak (Ibidem, 46, fig. 7), Umay on the stele from the complex Kogaly (Алексей Рогожинский. Новые находки памятников древнетюркской эпиграфики и монументального искусства на юге и востоке Казахстана. Роль номадов в формировании культурного наследия Казахстана. (Алматы, 2010), 338-339, fig. 8). and thus images of this type of garment items at both male and female statues indicated that those depicted on them played a special, sacral and social role. It should be noted that anthropomorphic stelae depicted specific, known to the society individuals Gleb Kubarev. Ancient Turkic statues, 143..women polovtsian cult power

Iconography

Turkic nomads migrating to the areas of the Black Sea steppe Author takes the contractual definition of the “Black Sea steppe” in this paper - for the vast territory, including the steppes of Europe range from Budjak steppe, across the steppes: the Black Sea (corresponding to the Plain of the Black Sea), Lower Don steppe, Western-Ciscaucasus steppe, Stavropol steppe after Transvolga. The forest steppe frontier is the northern border of the “Black Sea steppe”. From the south the steppe is limited with the Black Sea, the Crimean Mountains, the Caucasus and the Caspian Depression. in the Ruthenian sources referred to also as the Polovtsians, brought from the Asian territories an abundant cultural heritage. One of elements of their complex rituals was a custom of erecting cult and sacrificial constructions. Within those stone constructions they placed statues of a pair of ancestors coming from the elite of equestrians, similarly as in a case of their early Turkic forefathers Aneta Gol^biowska-Tobiasz. Monumental Polovtsian Statues in Eastern Europa. The Archaeology, Conservation and Protection. Versita. (London, 2014), 39-42.. The Polovtsians in a relatively short time reached political and economic stabilisation at newly overtaken areas of South-East Europe. This situation contributed directly to development of the art of stelae. The Polovtsian stelae were characterised with a high artistry in crafting the material. Individual features of a person, such as clothing details, ornaments, weaponry and sometimes even disabilities, were depicted in great details. The statues have become a testimony of selective reception of fashion present at the Ruthenian court by the environment of the Polovtsian elite. Also a number of made and exhibited female images increased, which is confirmed by archaeological finds. In an Asian environment the majority of statues depicted warriors and male representatives of social elites, where as in the Black Sea steppe area statues presenting women were comparably frequent as those dedicated to male ancestors Герман Фeдoрoв-Дaвидoв. Кoчeвники вoстoчнoй Еврoпы тд влaстью зoлoтooрдынских хaнoв. Aрхeoлoгичeскиe пaмятники. (Мoсквa, 1966), 184-185; Светлана Плетнева. Пoлoвецкие каменные извaяния. Археология CCCP. (Москвa, 1974), 69..

Some of the statues, created at the peak period of the art of stelae development, present women dressed in equestrian attire. They wore short shirts and caftans (fig. 1). Caftans were trimmed with passementerie. Edges, sleeves and collars were decorated with embroidered geometrical ornaments (see: Pletneva, 1974Ibidem., Catalogue: 198, tabl. 82 stele 1303; 121, tabl. 5 stele 22; 144. tabl. 28, stele 257). Shalwars were put into riding boots, bounded with garter straps upholding a belt (see: Pletneva, 1974Ibidem., Catalogue: 135, tabl. 19 stele 122; 156, tabl. 40 stele 335; 171, tabl. 55, stele 1067; 173 tabl. 57 stele 1075; 175, tabl. 59 stele 1125; 176, tabl. 60 stele 1115; 183, tabl. 67 stele 1177; 184 tabl. 68 stele 1189; 190, tabl. 74 stele 1243; 198, tabl. 82 stele 1302 and 1303). Some necessary utensils were attached to the belt: scissors (see: Pletneva, 1974Ibidem., Catalogue: 162, tabl. 46 stele 688), mirrors (see: Pletneva, 1974Ibidem., Catalogue: 143, tabl. 27, stele 249), burses (see: Pletneva, 1974Ibidem., Catalogue: 161, tabl. 45 stele 686). Heads were decorated with a sophisticated outfit consisting of hat, scarf, cap and sometimes also the so called “horns” (see: Pletneva, 1974Ibidem., Catalogue: 120, tabl. 4 stele 24; 135, tabl. 19 stele 122; 163, tabl. 47 stele 700; 165 tabl. 49 stele 808; 182, tabl. 60 stele 1167; 198, tabl. 82 stele 1302 and 1303). Women wore also torcs and necklaces made of pendants (see: Pletne- va, 1974Ibidem., Catalogue: 121, tabl. 5 stele 22; 142, tabl. 26, stele 245; 174, tabl. 58 stele 1099; 198, tabl. 82 stele 1302 and 1303).

Analysis of details of the monumental anthropomorphic sculpture indicates that knives were relatively commonly used. However in a case of female representations such knives were rather linked with utility objects, which is confirmed by small dimensions of carefully depicted by sculptors blades (see: Pletneva, 1974Ibidem., Catalogue: 119 tabl. 3 stele 11, 126 tabl. 10 stele 32; 127 tabl. 11 stele 43; 129 tabl. 13 stele 51 and 58; 130 tabl. 14 stele 42 and 46; 137 tabl. 21 stele 138; 141 tabl. 25 stele 153, 177 tabl. 61 stele 1144; 186 tabl. 70 stele 1205, 191 tabl. 75 stele 1237; 193 tabl. 77 stele 1283).

Deposits

The high status of women in a social and economic structure of the Polovt- sian federations (according to the nomenclature introduced by Pletneva -- the Polovtsian associations„половецкие объединения” (Ibidem, 23).) and their impact on the sphere of power finds its reflection in the rites. New rulers of the steppe brought with them not only the ability to erect sacrificial and cult constructions and the art of stelae related to the Manism (ancestor worship), but also funeral traditions, slightly different that funeral rites of the kindred Turkic people. Female burials of the Polovt- sian's women are characterised by a relatively unified set of funeral donations. In addition to the parade clothes, of which sometimes fragments of silk textiles and decorations preserved, the majority of them are jewellery made of precious metals and stones, and everyday use items. In rich graves the sets included also, among others: imports and luxury items as well as symbols of power. Female burials contained also saddled horses and sometimes also horse drawn vehicles. Among artifacts there were also weapons, although weapons are uncommon components of female equipment (7% of finds -- fig. 2). For comparison, the early Turkic female burials containing weapons, representing mainly by knives or daggers, are extremely rare. They represent only 5% of finds⁸⁵.

Among inventories of the Polovtsian's women there were knives used in everyday activities. It is assumed that combat daggers are those with blades longer than 20 cm⁸⁶. Length of blades of artefacts found in female burials, being a research base on which this article relies, ranges from 7 to 15 cm⁸⁷.

Daggers were elements of weaponry complementing the warrior attire or were used as a parade weapon. The dagger discovered in a female grave at the Maliayevka site [mound no. 2, Leninsk raion, Volgograd oblast, Russia⁸⁸ is preserved only in part (fig. 3, on the map⁸⁹ -- No 7). The blade and the point have been destroyed. A fragment of an iron handle smoothly changing into the blade of an elongated, bay leaf shaped and lenticular in cross-section, was rectangular in cross-section and had a rectangular shape⁹⁰. The preserved fragment of a metal part was 21 cm long⁹¹. In addition to the dagger the grave included also a bronze mirror and a bone spindle whorl. The deceased, aged around 35-40, was placed in a wooden construction (in a frame made of boards) inside a grave niche. At a soil step, over the niche, an entire saddled horse has been placed⁹². Funeral rites (a mound erected for one burial, niche construction of burial pit with a soil step, western orientation of a horse, wooden frame), as well as artifacts indicate the Polovtsian origins and the entire complex has been dated back to the 13^th -- 14^th century⁹³.

In a grave dug into an older one at the Blagovishchenka site, researchers discovered an upper part of an edged weapon (on the map -- No 6). The iron sabre (or dagger)⁹⁴ was placed to the right of the body of the deceased aristocrat woman [grave no. 2, Kamensk-Dniprovsk raion, Zaporizhia oblast, Ukraine⁹⁵. Unfortunately the short publication included neither metrical data Николай Серегин. Общие и особенные характеристики, 63. Искандер Измайлов. Вооружение и военное дело населения Волжской Булгарии X - начала XIII века. (Казань-Магадан, 1997), 53. In those cases, when authors of studies reported dimensions of artifacts or at least published drawings containing a scale. Борис Железчиков, Давлет Кумуков. Раскопки у села Маляевка. Древности Волго-Донских степей. Вып. 6. (Волгоград, 1998), 126. I thank very much PhD Stsiapan Tsemushau for the map he prepared. Борис Железчиков, Давлет Кумуков. Раскопки у села Маляевка, 137, фиг 2.6. Ibidem, 126. Ibidem, 126. Ibidem, 127. For comments and consultation I sincerely thank PhD Oleksii Komar. Зоя Попандопуло. Погребение с оружием и женскими украшениями. Международные связи в средневековой Европе. Тезисы научных докладов и сообщений областного научно-практического семинара (16 - 18 октября 1988 г.), (Запорожье, 1988), 47. nor illustrations. Among artifacts there are also two preserved rhomboidal pendants made of lapis lazuli and gold rings of the Polovtsian type Ibidem, 46-47.. At the waist, in addition to the weapon there were a leather burse and a leather whip behind the head Ibidem, 47.. The body of the deceased, oriented to the west, was placed in a wooden coffin (the so called “решетчатое гробовище”). Over the burial pit, on a wooden stretcher a horse scull and limbs were laid in an anatomic order -- oriented to the west, equipped with a bit, a stirrup and a saddle, of which only bone covers of a saddlebow and a girth buckle preserved Ibidem, 46.. Numerous fragments of broken pottery, both hand-made and made with a potter's wheel, have been scattered around the burial pit Ibidem, 46.. The author of that study dated the complex back to the 11^th -- 13^th century Ibidem, 46..

A set of weapon that a woman buried in a mound of an older kurgan at the Malokaterynivka site has been equipped with [grave no. 1, mound no. 8, Zaporizhia raion, Zaporizhia oblast, Ukraine Алла Плешивенко. Курганы селаМалокатериновка. (Запорожье, 1996), 14-15.] indicated that she could have something in common with war craft or she was a head of a clan (fig. 4, on the map -- No 4). Anthropological studies confirmed that she died at the age of 35 -- 40 Ibidem, 1, 109.. She was buried in a wooden construction (the so called “решетчатое гробовище”) with the body oriented to the east Ibidem, 15.. Next to the body, there were horse remains, limbs and stirrups. At the moment of sacrifice, the horse was probably about 5 years old Ibidem, 1, 112.. The weaponry included a dagger (or sword) and arrows, originally presumably placed in a quiver which, however, did not last to the moment of discovery. The weapon was hung to the belt on the left side and on the same side also two spears were laid Ibidem, 16.. Arrowheads were made of iron. Three exemplars with a shaft were rhomboidal, one exemplar was characterised with a narrow elongated head and a spine for a shaft Ibidem, tabl. IX.2-4.. Their lengths ranged from 5.5 to 6 cm Ibidem, 16.. The spearheads are poorly preserved. These spearheads were tubes of a circular cross-section. One of them had a shape similar to conical and its preserved fragment was 3.5 cm long and 1.5 -- 3 cm in diameter Ibidem, tabl. IX.6.. The second cylindrical tube was 6 cm long and 2 cm in diameter Ibidem, 16; tabl. IX.7.. The dagger (or sword) was made of iron. A double-edged thrust that was 15 cm long and 4 cm wide has preserved Ibidem, 16, tabl, IX.5.. The author dated the entire complex back to the 11^th -- 12^th century¹¹¹.

The grave of 25 year old woman contained an iron arrowhead, circular in its cross-section, with a broach-shaped head, 7.3 cm long and bone bracer (Bilen'ke, grave no. 1, Zaporizhia raion, Zaporizhia oblast, Ukraine¹¹² (fig. 5, on the map -- No 1). A bone cover and an iron buckle that preserved under the head of deceased might have been components of a quiver¹¹³. The fact that the woman was an equestrian was confirmed by fragments of high uppers of boots made of leather and birch peg to horse hitching¹¹⁴. The deceased was placed in a wooden coffin, made of longer boards constituting side walls and a bottom, as well as shorter boards binding the entire construction (the so called “решетчатое гробовище”). Coffins of this type are considered by some researchers to be a symbolic version of a carriage, reduced according to sepulchral needs that in the Polovtsian environment preceded depositing entire vehicles in graves¹¹⁵. This female burial was accompanied by a horse dummy. Limbs and a scull of the horse, presumably once wrapped in leather, together with a pair of stirrups were placed on a soil step over the burial pit. The complex has been dated back to the 11^th -- 12^th century and has been linked with the Tork environment. However, the burial rites, (namely: eastern orientation of the corps, western orientation of the horse, grave construction -- a niche grave, pit with a soil step), as well as a type of bits indicate that the woman in the grave was a young Polovtsian.

Among deposits containing weaponry the researchers have found individual items or their elements, which without any doubts came from the Ruthe- nian environment. An interesting relic is an iron axe discovered in a female niche burial at the Petropavlivka site [Pavlohrad raion, Dnepropetrovsk oblast, Ukraine, grave no. 2, mound no. 1, group V¹¹⁶] (fig. 6, on the map -- No 5). It has been placed, together with a knife, under the left knee of the deceased¹¹⁷. The axe had a wide, nearly rectangular back. The opening of the base was triangular in cross-section. Its tip resembled a narrow and long bar with symmetrical, nearly straight blade, with a slightly curved, arc-shaped and strongly reduced beard¹¹⁸. Unfortunately precise dimensions of the artifact were not provided. Relying on a drawing, it is possible to assume that the entire length of the axe was about 13.5 cm, its back and tip was 5.5 cm wide, while the neck was 3 cm wide. The item has been dated back to the 10^th -- 13^th century¹¹⁹. Ibidem, 103. Зоя Попандопуло. Курганный могильник у с. Беленькое. Древности степного Причерноморья и Крыма. Вып. 5. (Запорожье, 1995), 127, fig. 2.6/1, 2.8. Ibidem, 127, fig. 2.4, 2.7. Ibidem, 126, 127, fig. 2.5. Владимир Шалoбудов, Владимир Яремака. Кочевнические захоронения X-XII вв. на р. Волчьей. Проблемы археологии Поднепровья. Вып. 2. (Днепропетровск, 1986), 145-146. Владимир Шалобудов. Ещё раз о находках распрямленных гривен в половецких погребениях. Исследования по археологии Поднепровья. (Днепропетровск, 1990). 110-111. Ibidem, 109. Ibidem, 108, fig. 1.21 Ibidem, 111. 111). Analogous items came from Kiev and Sarkel Ibidem, 110-111.. This type of weapon has its analogies also in territories of the Khazar Khaganate, Kama Bulgaria and Southern Ural Искандер Измайлов. Вооружение и военное дело населения Волжской Булгарии X - начала XIII века. (Казань-Магадан, 1997), 82.. Presence of an axe in a female burial could have an apotropaic meaning Элеонора Львова, Ирина Октябрьская, Андрей Сагалаев, Мансылу Усманова. Традиционное мировоззрение Тюрков Южной Сибири. Пространство и время. Вещный мир. (Новосибирск: Наука, 1988), 191-192.. In addition to the axe, there was also an iron knife with a handle and a triangle in cross-section blade. The thrust has been destroyed. Judging by the proportions and the scale, the knife was used in everyday activities. The length of blade was shorter than 20 cm Владимир Шалобудов. Ещё раз о находках распрямленных гривен в половецких погребениях, 108, fig. 1.20.. The high social status of the deceased woman is confirmed by the very abundant inventory. It included preserved fragments of clothing and decorations, namely an element of the head dress, the so called “horns” made of glided bronze plates Ibidem, 108, fig. 1.13., a copper belt strap fitting decorated with a dragon motif Ibidem, 108, fig. 1.23. and an iron belt strap buckle. The second buckle, made of bronze and an iron ring were also linked with the attire Ibidem, 109.. The grave contained items being Ruthenian imports: a spindle whorl made of Ovruch slate, a wheel vessel coming from a workshop of the Kiev-Pe- reyaslavl princes and a pot -- presumably a Byzantine import Ibidem, 108, fig. 1.18-19, 24.. The deceased woman was also equipped with a mirror made of bronze and decorated with a geometrical motif, originally inserted into a pouch, trimmed with beads made of glass and rock crystal Ibidem, 108, fig. 1.16.. Beads made of rock crystal were probably made in workshops of Ruthenian craftsmen Aneta Gol^biowska-Tobiasz. Precious and decorative stones and other raw minerals in Polovtsian burial inventories (11^th - beginning of 13^th century). RossicaAntiqua. T. 1/9. (St. Petersburg, 2014), 21.. An attribute confirming the highest social position was a silver straightened bar (the so called “распрямленная ip^Ha”), placed in a leather sheath decorated with a copper fitting Владимир Шалoбудов. Ещё раз о находках распрямленных гривен в половецких погребениях, 109; 108, fig. 1.22; Aneta Gol^biowska-Tobiasz. Monumental Polovtsian Statues in Eastern Europa. The Archaeology, Conservation and Protection. Versita. (London, 2014), 56..

The woman has been buried in a wooden construction (the so called “решетчатое гробовище”) with the body oriented to the west. Next to the body there were horse remains, probably originally wrapped in leather. Preserved limbs bones and a scull were placed in an anatomical order and oriented to the east. The horse was saddled. Among the horse equipment there are bridle straps studded with silver heraldic fittings, iron bits, stirrups and a girth buckle remained Владимир Шагобудов. Ещё раз о находках распрямленных гривен в половецких погребениях, 109..

In the robbed grave at the Bolshemikhaylivka site the deceased was laid in a carriage placed in a burial niche (fig. 7, on the map -- No 2). Next to it, at a soil step a whole saddled horse oriented to the west was placed. Among the horse equipment there are iron bits and stirrups, girth buckles and bronze bridle strap caps preserved [grave no. 2, mound no. 5, group I, Pokrovsk raion, Dnipropetrovsk oblast, Ukraine¹³². The woman died in adulthood. Among deposits that remained authors mentioned a knife, a quiver fragment and a silver bracelet on a hand¹³³. The burial is well dated with a gold scyphate of Manuel I Komnenos back to 1143 -- the second half of 12^th century¹³⁴. The coin served as a pendant on a bracelet. An iron knife with a handle shaft with straight edge and slightly curved blade was used in everyday activities, as, according to the scale provided, the blade was shorter than 20 cm¹³⁵. Presence of a quiver that was completely destroyed is confirmed by a metal fragment used to strap it. It had a rectangular shape with a loop in its central part for fixing and in a side view it resembled the “T” letter¹³⁶. According to the drawing, it has been attached to the horse saddle on the left side¹³⁷. Sepulchral architecture (niche grave with a soil step) and the east orientation of the deceased indicate that the woman buried there was Polovtsian.

In a Polovtsian niche grave at the Susanino site an arrowhead was discovered [Saksk raion, Symferopol oblast, Crimea¹³⁸ (on the map -- No 3). Unfortunately no detailed description of the find was provided. The female niche grave with a soil step contained also a vessel (made with a wheel) and remains of an entire saddled horse.

The weapon characteristic for burials of high-rank equestrian warriors was rarely present in graves of the Polovtsian's aristocrat women¹³⁹ (fig. 8 -- the map). In the cases described above the complexes containing weapon could be divided into three categories. The first one included burials with archery kits with metal arrowheads, metal components of quivers (sometimes also organic fragments of construction remain) and a bone bracer. The data obtained thanks to anthropological studies indicate that a quiver was used both young (juvenis/adultus -- Bilen'ke site) and mature women (adultus/maturus -- Malokaterynivka and Bolshemikhaylivka sites). It is interesting that in graves of “archer women” there were no items that were commonly placed in female burials, except for a modest bracelet found at the Bolshemikhaylivka site. In Bilen'ke the “archer woman” was additionally equipped with a knife. Владимир Шалобудов, Владимир Яремака. Кочевнические захоронения X-XII вв. на р. Волчьей. Проблемы археологии Поднепровья. Вып. 2. (Днепропетровск, 1986), 147. Ibidem, 148 fig. 3.3-5. Ibidem, 149. Ibidem, 148 fig. 3.4. Ibidem, 148 fig. 3.5. Ibidem, 148 fig. 3.1. Валерий Ольховский. Раскопки в степном Крыму. Археологические Открытия 1986 года. (Москва, 1988), 319. In relation to the entire research material collected (88 complexes) graves with weapons constitute 7% of all female burials, within the range of 11^th - 13^th/14^th century, discovered in the steppe in its European borders.

The burial in Malokaterynivka is exceptional and represents simultaneously the second category of female burials including weaponry. A set of sepulchral goods: a dagger (sword), spears and arrows clearly indicate an occupation or a social status of the deceased. Undoubtedly she had a lot in common with the war craft. It is possible that during her lifetime she led parades, replaced her husband or was a chief of a clan. The grave in Malokaterynivka contains no preserved artifact being a marker of typical female inventory set, which of course cannot be completely ruled out. There is no information about the attire details. The third category of female burials with weaponry is different particularly in terms of abundance of items directly indicating femininity. These include particularly typical feminine ornaments such as earrings of the Polovtsian type and pendants made of lapis lazuli at the Blagovishchenka site, „horns” and beads at Petropavlivka, mirrors and spindle whorls at Maliayevka and Petropavlivka sites. The grave in Petropavlivka was signed with a straightened bar indicating a high rank and social function of the deceased woman, similarly as rarely recorded abundance of imports. Single exemplars of weapons (sword, dagger, axe) among deposited as sepulchral goods in graves of this kind were rather of symbolic than military meaning. Presumably -- as in the case of the early Turkic graves and their ethnographic analogies coming from the environment of the Turkic nations, this was a consequence of the idea of “passing” the weapon of a deceased husband or a male kin waiting in the “other world” Николай Серегин. Общие и особенные характеристики, 64.. It is not impossible that a type of weapon (melee) had a magic character protecting the deceased from the evil Элеонора Львова, Ирина Октябрьская, Андрей Сагалаев, Мансылу Усманова. Традиционное мировоззрение Тюрков Южной Сибири. Пространство и время. Вещный мир. (Новосибирск: Наука, 1988), 192..

Among the above mentioned complexes with weapon, none contained a cauldron -- a symbol of a family (clan or tribe), united around a campfire, satiety and happiness of the family Ibidem, 140.. Similarly, there were no deposits including cauldrons at the early Turkic sites. Among the early Turks, women equipped with weapons were also equipped with a horse for the journey to the underworld Николай Серегин. Общие и особенные характеристики, 63.. This tradition has been continued among the Polovtsian elites. In contrast to funeral rites of the early Turks, the graves of Polovtsian's women containing weapon, always contained a saddled horse, equipped for riding, even if the deceased was placed in a carriage (site Bolshemikhaylivka).

Taking into account palpableness of funeral rites limited only to the Polovtsian elites, it can be noticed that the highest social stratum that included free equestrians and their families was internally diversified, similarly as it used to be among their distant early Turkic ancestors Ibidem, 64-66.. A factor that distinguished them was wealth and social status. Some families accumulated power and wealth and became so powerful that could influence policy of neighbouring military monarchies. This social situation seems to be reflected in well-equipped burials of aristocratic women that included single weapons and occasionally also rare imports emphasising high status of those women and families they represented. In the absence of husbands the wives of the elite warriors were able to lead the family and protect their territories or act on behalf of chiefs managing assets or organising military expeditions. The woman from Malokaterynivka could act as a chief and a guardian of a family. Finally -- women of free warriors, being themselves excellent riders and quivers. They presumably used those weapons during hunting -- an entertainment highly-regarded among the nomadic people -- and during confrontations, when they were forced to protect camps, families or children. It is possible that “archer-women” were engaged in a war craft. Sepulchral deposits containing less female markers were associated either with the fact that they came from less respected families or were a consequence of the fact that during their occupations were different, uncommon for their gender, taboo subjected in funeral rites through lack of artifacts symbolising femininity.

Summary

Individual weapons in female graves, equipped with diverse and rich inventories including objects clearly identified with females, could indicate their social status and social status of their husbands -- chiefs of families, breadwinners, guardians and protectors of the subordinate communities. Weaponry could serve as a symbol of masculinity, presumably sanctioning the social role of a woman as a mother of a chief or a wife and mother of his children, who, if necessary, had a right to rule on behalf of her husband or minor sons. The social role, indicating that a woman was periodically ruling in the name of a male member of a family (a father, a brother, a husband or a son), with all consequences of this was linked with representatives of the aristocracy, women of a qatun status, who could influence the policy pursued by the family. It is possible that the weapon in those cases mentioned was put in graves in some magical purpose, in order to protect the deceased during her journey to the other world or, according to beliefs, facilitate her contact with deceased male members of the family through an object being “recognisable” for them.

The accumulation of various kinds of weapon in graves that virtually contained no artefacts typical for female sepulchral inventories, as it was in a case of archers indicates that women could use that weapon in practice. It is doubtful, however, that they were allowed to participate in military campaigns on equal terms as men. Their skills were certainly useful, when assets or camps during local conflicts. Their horse-riding and archery skills were mentioned by Giovanni da Pian del Carpine: “Girls and women ride and gallop on horses as skilfully as men. We even saw them carrying quivers and bows, and the women can ride horses for as long, as the men; they have shorter stirrups, handle horses very well, and mind all the property” Da Pian Del Carpine Giovanni. The Story of the Mongols Whom We Call the Tartars. Historia Mon- galorum Quos Nos Tartaros Appellamus: Friar Giovanni Di Plano Carpini's Account of His Embassy.

The grave of the heavily equipped female warrior, the female stelae presenting a women with elements of armament or in riding clothes may confirm that women coming from the family elite used weapons with proficiency, although it cannot be excluded that this symbolism was rather related with the role of the head of family, acquired after the death of her husband. In the history confirmed with archaeological discoveries and with the analysis of iconography there are known situations, when women were had to acquire male attributes -- dress up during official ceremonies they attended as rulers -- in order to take or sanction power until minor sons become adult or until they get married again. In the male world -- as the nomadic environment surely was -- within the clan system, in which clearly defined division of social roles functioned well, an image of a woman-warrior could appear in predefined and tolerated in the society situations. By no means was this a rule.

The weaponry in graves of the Polovtsian's women shall be thus considered in a broader cultural context. The interpretation proposed, relying on an analysis of a limited sequence of sites introduced to the scientific debate does not solve the issue of the role the weapon played in a common and ceremonial life, particularly in funeral and recollection rites related to females.

Підписи поставити під ілюстраціями:

1. The stele from Donetsk Regional Museum -- state in January 2008 (phot. by Author).

2. The diagram: “Weapon in the graves of Polovtsian's women (%)”.

3. Maliayevka -- burial inventory -- artifacts numbering adopted following original numbers given by the authors of the papers in original publications (cf. Железчиков, Кумуков, 1998, 136, pict. 1; 137, pict. 2).

4. Malokaterynivka -- burial inventory -- artifacts numbering adopted following original numbers given by the author of the papers in original publications (cf. Плешивенко, 1996, table IX.1-8).

5. Bilen'ke -- burial inventory -- artifacts numbering adopted following original numbers given by the author of the papers in original publications (cf. nonann,onyao, 1995, 127, pict. 2).

6. Petropavlivka -- burial inventory -- artifacts numbering adopted following original numbers given by the author of the papers in original publications (cf. Шалoбуцов, 1990, 108, pict. 1).

7. Bolshemikhaylivka -- burial inventory -- artifacts numbering adopted following original numbers given by the authors of the papers in original publications (cf. Шалoбуцов, Яремака, 1986, 148 pict. 3).

8. The map: “Polovtsian's female burials with weapon”.

Piet. (8)

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