Women of Europe in the Great War (1914-1918)

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Women of Europe in the Great War (1914-1918)

Tyrell Hook

Polytechnic University of Timisoara

Laura Oane

University of Iasi

Abstract

The relevance of this topic was primarily conditioned upon the need to cover women's experience during combat operations, both on and off the front lines. The importance of highlighting such experiences was the insufficient level of study of the relevant issue, as a result - the unsatisfactory level of awareness among the population of the importance of women during military operations. The purpose of the study was to investigate and clarify the issue of the participation and role of European women in the First World War. The following methods were used to conduct the study: comparative, statistical, historical, systematic, terminological, etc. The findings revealed the place of women during the World War in 1914-1918, and identified the main changes observed among the female population in the corresponding time intervals, in particular, the issue of women's emancipation and the feminist movement. On the example of a number of countries, including France, Romania, and Ukraine, statistics on women's employment in jobs that belonged to men before the war were presented. A comparative analysis of the involvement of women in direct military operations during 1914-1918 was carried out. Some changes in the political, social, and economic environment of European countries in relation to women are presented as the main results of emancipation and feminist movements during the First World War, in particular, the Ukrainian women's movement of 1914-1918 is considered. The results of this study can be used to further clarify women's experience during military operations by historians and researchers, as well as public figures to highlight the participation of women in the First World War among the population

Keywords: World War I, feminist movement, emancipation, gender inequality, women's experience

Анотація

Політехнічний університет Тімішоара

Лаура Оан

Ясський університет

Жінки Європи у Великій Війні (1914-1918 рр.)

Ключові слова: Перша світова війна, феміністичний рух, емансипація, гендерна нерівність, жіночий досвід

Introduction

A significant contribution to the study of women's experience in the First World War is the collection of works “Gender and War in Eastern Europe of the 20^th Century”, published under the editorship of N. Wingfield. The studies were devoted to the restoration of the social pre-war status of women, the patriotism of women during the First and Second World Wars, sexual violence against women, etc. [6].

The study by O. Pavlyshina “Emancipation of a peasant woman during the First World War” is also if interest. The author cites considerations about the higher level of involvement of women in jobs that belonged to men, as a result of large-scale mobilisation activities by the authorities. It also emphasises the opportunities for women to master new professions and the emergence of access to defence enterprises [7].

Thus, the purpose of the study is to investigate the participation of women in the Great War. The relevance of the study is the need to demonstrate the experience of women in conducting combat operations and outside the front. The originality is conditioned by the fact that this topic has not been covered so extensively before.

Materials and methods

1. At the first stage, the main prerequisites of the First World War and the state of women in the pre-war period were theoretically outlined. This allowed us to gain a deeper understanding of the fundamental changes in women's rights and freedoms that were caused by the Great War and how it affected all spheres of public life through the involvement of women in them.

2. The second stage is characterised by a study of the situation of women in European countries in wartime. In particular, at this stage, attention was paid to women in Ukraine, Germany, France, Great Britain, etc. Attention is focused on the modification of the usual representation of the image of women in society, examples are given regarding the activities and types of work that women gained access to through mobilisation movements on the territory of a particular country that was atypical for women at that time. Statistics on some of the employment rates of women are also offered. The study examines the issue of women's participation in patriotic movements, the nature of their presence at the front, etc.

3. The final stage of the study - the third - is the analysis of the previous stage and comparison of its results with the arguments, studies, and research of other authors, researchers, and scientists. This analysis allows considering the relevant topic more deeply, taking into account the advantages of research developments of others, and forming a conclusion that would provide a complete imagery of the state of women in Europe in 1914-1918.

Results

The First World War was the logical solution to a number of conflicts and disputes between countries, which were largely conditioned by differences in interests regarding development and cooperation. The course and development of the war was influenced by the foundation of military-political blocs, namely the Triple (and later Quadruple) Alliance and the Entente. The first allied formation included the Austro-Hungarian and German empires, Italy, etc. The second bloc consisted of Great Britain, France, and the Russian Empire. The arms race, dissatisfaction with the newly created German Empire with the division of territories between two existing ones, and the lack of a mechanism for resolving conflicts peacefully and relying on militarisation led to sufficient conditions for the emergence of one of the most global and more massive wars in the world [8].

During 1914-1918, about 74 million men from several dozen countries were mobilised to the front. The loss statistics are impressive (Fig. 1).

Figure 1. The greatest human losses of countries during 1914-1918

Given the mobilisation of the almost exclusively male population, it is logical for women of the society of that time to adapt to the new conditions of reality. This means taking on the role of breadwinner of the family, worker, and sometimes defender, as well as increasing the activity of women in patriotic and national movements. In general, this trend of changing the so-called “role of women” can be called a revolution that took place under the tragic circumstances of 1914-1918 and brought a number of transformations in the political, economic, social, and cultural life of women [9].

The pre-war situation of women's legal rights is important for understanding their further change against the background of the transformations that the First World War brought with it. In particular, one of the important issues raised by women before the outbreak of the Great War was the right to vote. It was at the beginning and during the 19^th century that women, using various methods (demonstration, campaigning), began to demand the right to vote. The first country to grant this right to women was New Zealand in 1893, but it was after the Great War that this process was introduced in most countries of the World (Fig. 2).

Figure 2. Granting women voting rights in some European countries by year

Source: [10]

Before the outbreak of the Great War, most of its participants believed that it would not last long and hoped for a quick and effective solution to this conflict [7]. That is why the large-scale mobilisation of the working population, the majority of which were men, was accompanied by the temporary closure of factories. Thus, women who either worked in these factories or were economically dependent on their husband's income found themselves in a difficult situation, which forced them to look for new jobs and claim those that in pre-war times belonged to men.

The variability of positions held everywhere by women acquired an increasingly emancipated image: from drivers to employees of the military-defence complex [11]. In the end, given the course of the war and a large number of human losses, industrialists and state representatives themselves launched a broad campaign aimed at attracting women to production and industry. In particular, German labour campaigns were supported and coordinated by the government, while French ones were based on the exclusive desire of women to take a particular job.

The decline in the labour force as a result of the war also significantly affected the conditions under which women now worked. Their working day was irregular and in some cases exceeded 12 hours. As Francoise Thebaud notes in her report, such work, although dangerous, was sometimes well paid. According to the statistics, the share of working women has increased to more than 50%, and the share of French women in the industry to 20%. Despite such indicators, a significant part of employers did not want to recognise the replacement of male jobs by women as equivalent and, accordingly, reduced wages for work performed by women with the same productivity as men before [12].

In general, it is possible to distinguish several categories according to which there was a replacement of jobs by women, among them:

1) jobs that even in pre-war times belonged to women on an equal basis with men;

2) jobs that were only partially replaced by women;

3) attracting women to work through staff cuts at the enterprise;

4) transition of women to those jobs that have never been occupied by them before, mastering a new profession, career, etc. [13].

A large percentage of women's involvement was in the transport and trade sectors. Thus, as already noted, women often worked as trolleybus drivers, conductors, cleaners of transport salons, ticket holders, etc. Women were also involved in shipbuilding. They were allowed to trade, wash windows, clean premises, perform agricultural work, and were involved in the stationery industry [14].

Given the complexity of some of the jobs that women had access to, sometimes a single-man process was performed by several women. At the beginning of the war, most of the women who held jobs did not have a high level of qualification in relation to the process in which they were involved. Only with the long course and further development of the war, having the opportunity to practice and hone skills, women mastered new professions. Thus, some factories had about 90% of female staff with variable skill levels [15]. Attracting women to work in the military-defence complex, for example, in the manufacture of ammunition, also contained some difficulties and features of work, for which a woman needed auxiliary cranes, trolleys, etc. Most women who worked to support their families, maintaining the economic stability of the country, etc., had hopes for an appropriate attitude even after the war. Some countries considered the contribution of women to the victory and support of the state, and some, such as Germany, France, and Italy, conducted campaigns to return the position of women to the post-war level by campaigning for motherhood [15].

Another important area occupied by women is helping the wounded. For example, at the beginning of the war, M. Stobart gave a speech about the creation of the British Women's National Service League, which later included women who had the skills to provide medical services to the wounded at the front. Later, Stobart received a request from the Belgian Red Cross to create a separate relief corps for Belgian and French wounded soldiers [16].

In total, about 50,000 women began serving in voluntary associations to help the wounded at the beginning of the war, mostly feminists, suffragettes, qualified medical workers, and patriots. Less qualified women were engaged in the supply of medical instruments to sanitary trains, inpatient departments of hospitals, etc. [17].

Women were mostly present as nurses or volunteers in the following organisations:

1) First aid nursing service;

2) Voluntary assistance unit;

3) Women's army auxiliary corps, etc.

In general, it is advisable to single out some women who are the most famous participants of the First World War. Agnes Bennett has become the first female surgeon to work for the British Army. Elsie Ingles, a physician and suffragist, founded a number of Scottish women's hospitals to serve the wounded, and also actively fought for women's suffrage rights. Flora Sandes, who was a volunteer in the Serbian ambulance brigade, later became an officer in the Serbian army and was awarded the highest distinction - the Order of the Karadorde Star. Helena Gleichen, who was engaged in painting, joined the service as an ambulance driver, and later became a doctor in a number of European countries. She received the title of female major and a number of awards. Belgian spy Gabrielle Petit, who spied for the British Corps in Belgium, was executed at the end of the war, and later recognised as the national heroine of Belgium. Another spy, Louise Bettigs, who spied on the German army in favour of the British Army, was posthumously awarded the Legion Cross. Marie Mervington was the first female bomber to complete a combat mission to destroy a German military base in Metz, and was later awarded. Romanian military Catherine Teodorou became the first officer in the Romanian Army, after her death in battle in 1917, she was awarded the title of the national heroine of Romania [18].

Ukrainian women's experience in the First World War is also quite valuable and indicative for the study. According to F. Turchenko, as of 1916, about 10% of women were employees in those enterprises where only men were involved in pre-war times.

Women's pre-war education was low (Table 1).

Table 1. Percentage of illiterate Galician women before 1914

Source: [19]

That is why the beginning and course of the First World War can be identified with the beginning of the emancipation of Ukrainian women.

As of 1914, Ukraine was divided between two empires: the Austro-Hungarian and Russian. Considering the situation of women in Galicia, which was then part of Austria-Hungary, it is worth noting that with the outbreak of hostilities, women's rights were expanded in the sphere of private property - for example, they could be guardians and receive inheritance. Often, women were involved in digging trenches by enemy forces in inhumane conditions. A peasant woman, who even in pre-war times worked harder than urban women, received a new, wider range of responsibilities for caring for the farm and family [20].

An important stage in the emancipation of women was the creation of the Union of Ukrainian women. The founders of this union sought to unite the efforts of both women from villages and women from cities, and gradually engage in educational activities and socialisation of peasant women for the further qualification of a particular speciality [21].

Indicators of changes in the social order and role models of women in society were speeches, demonstrations, and protests of Galician women to expand their rights and status, and protest movements against the actions of the authorities. The responsibilities that women received in the absence of men gave them the opportunity to feel like equal members of society and gave rise to the need for an appropriate status and attitude.

As for the part of Ukraine that was under the rule of Russia, the researcher I. Shcherbina cited statistics from 1913 to 1916 showing how the number of female workers increased, in particular, in the Poltava region, the number of female workers doubled, in the Yekaterynoslav region - six times, in Podolsk and Tavriyskyi also doubled. The combined number of women who were somehow involved in the industry and other areas increased to 77%, the largest increase was observed in enterprises of the defence complex, metalworking industry, etc. The smallest was in the textile and woodworking industries [22].

As for the militarisation of women in Galicia, it is important here to create the Supreme Ukrainian Council, which later made efforts to establish the legion of Ukrainian Sich Riflemen. The legion also included a women's corps, where there were about 30 women who participated in combat missions and applied for military ranks [23]. The exact number of women who participated in Ukrainian military associations is difficult to determine exactly because, in most cases, they used male pseudonyms. But it is advisable to give examples of Ukrainian military women who took part in combat operations during the First World War. Among them: Olena Stepaniv, who was the leader of the women's corps, and also participated in the Battle of Komarynky, Makivka, and later became a standard-bearer. Sofia Galechko, who was a volunteer in the Association of Ukrainian Sich Riflemen, performed reconnaissance tasks, was a rifleman, a nurse, distinguished herself in the battles in the Ternopil region, etc., and was awarded the “Medal for Bravery”. Anna Dmyterko, who participated in the Ukrainian Sich Riflemen since the beginning of the First World War, acting as a nurse in a hospital, also distinguished herself by serving under G. Kossak, fights near Strypa and Lysovychi. Olena Kuz, who joined the Red Cross, later became a volunteer in the Sich Riflemen. She took part in the battles for Lviv, Makivka, for which she was awarded the “Medal for Bravery”. Cornet Olga Pidvysotska, who served in the Ukrainian Sich Riflemen, was a rifleman and a participant in battles with Russian troops [23].

Discussion

The previous section, entitled “Results”, examined and outlined the situation of women both in pre-war times and during the Great War of 1914-1918. From the above data, it is possible to draw a conclusion about a forced change in the role of women in society. This opinion is also relevant to the reasoning of O. Drach, who notes that it was the First World War that became the catalyst with which a woman was able to declare herself as an equal subject and participant in public relations, received rights that she did not have before. Indeed, as already noted, women in Galicia received an expanded right of inheritance and guardianship [3].

British researcher Diana Condell in the book “Work for victory? Images of women in World War I, 1914-1918” illustrated a number of images of women and the new roles that they had to accept at the height of the Great War. The author notes that the military actions radically changed the position of women in society and their perception of themselves, according to which women realised that they could do the same work as men, be at the same social level. D. Condell added that in addition to the internal modified perception, external changes related to clothing, hairstyles, etc. were also important [24].

Similar are the arguments of the French researcher Francoise Thebaud, who notes that external emancipation is confirmed by fashion trends that became the main ones in post-war times, namely: short hairstyles, trousers, and the like. In some countries, women were granted the right to vote and universal suffrage. Other states, as noted by F. Thebaud, on the other hand, tried to return to the conventions that existed before the Great War. In particular, French propaganda and agitation were directed towards the return of women to the status of mother and wife in order to restore the country's gene pool and the need for reconstruction. The author notes that the most emancipated in France as a result of the war could be called young girls from wealthy families who previously lost parental care and had to take care of their own needs. However, generalising the female experience, according to Thebaud, is impractical, because it varies from one individual to another [12].

American author Jo Vellakot in the paper “Feminist consciousness and the First World War” considers the topic of changing feminist trends and reasoning against the background of the Great War. The researcher also considers feminism as one of the components of the pacifist movements of women. Like most authors and researchers, J. Vellakot notes that the female subordinate position has changed significantly, and the war has shifted the traditional vision of a woman as exclusively a mother or wife. One of the most significant feminist achievements of that time, according to the author, was the establishment of the International Women's League for Freedom and Peace [25].

The experience of Belgian women during the First World War is demonstrated by I. Bogerts in “The Belgian Woman and the Great War”. In particular, the work describes the establishment of the Patriotic Union of Belgian Women as the main consequence of national movements on the part of women. The union was engaged in providing variable assistance both in the reconstruction of Belgium, and in the care of wounded military personnel, and refugees from other countries. After the union was ousted by the Belgian Red Cross, they were transferred to the kitchens of the upper classes and trade union formations. After the German invasion, the activities of the Patriotic Union were based on the manufacture of clothing for the wounded, military, etc. [26].

A separate study of the experience of French women in the Great War was “The French Woman and the First World War” by Margaret Darrow. The author, using letters, diaries, and other sources, summarised the martial law of women and described it as a revolutionary change in traditional gender roles. She also added that despite the general need for labour, which could now be provided by women, such actions were often condemned by society, which for a long time was based on conservatism and morality, and sometimes manifestations of patriotism were also condemned. In particular, an important fact of the study is the sharply negative attitude towards the militarisation of women in the French army, where no women's military corps was established. The argumentation of such actions was based on the idea that in this way a woman wants to oust a man from the “purely male sphere”, create competition for him, prove superiority, etc., which could significantly undermine the authority and position of a military man in society [5].

Interesting for consideration and analysis is the paper “Women of Ukraine in the First World War” by Ukrainian researcher Maria Guk. In particular, the author's attention was paid to the issue of employment and labour of women. For example, in the part of Ukraine that was under the rule of the Russian Empire, in the conditions of mobilisation of a significant part of the male population, a woman was forced to look for earnings, engage in unusual work, and master new professions. M. Guk also cites data on the national policy on attracting women to work, for example, the government adopted a law in 1915 “On the admission of women and minors under the age of fifteen to night and underground work in coal mines”. Later, the decree was supplemented with a permit for night, overtime, and pre-holiday work for young children at mining enterprises, defence enterprises, etc. It is clear that the attitude of the authorities to the work of women was loyal not because of the need for their emancipation, but because of the need for uninterrupted operation of enterprises, which occurred at the expense of inhumane working conditions [4].

Olena Gutak's study “Ukrainian Sich Riflemen: representation ofwomen in folklore, press and popular culture (1914-1939)” is devoted to the investigation of the female experience of Ukrainian women in the territory controlled by the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The researcher focuses on the Ukrainian militarisation and involvement of women in military operations, which in other countries was either minimised or prohibited, that is, the right to violence, according to O. Gutak, was the prerogative of the exclusively male population. Despite this, the legion of Ukrainian Sich Riflemen had a female military corps, the name “strilchin- ya” was established, which was later represented in a number of Ukrainian rifle songs. But women's involvement in military operations was not an ingrained practice. The image of a nurse helping the wounded and sick was better and more accepted by society [27].

The taboo of militarisation of women was again associated with the alleged undermining of the authority of men's military experience and men as soldiers in general, as a result of women's involvement in military operations. Thus, according to the majority of traditionalists and conservatives, who made up the exclusive majority of society at that time, a woman, as a military man, demonstrates the inability of a man to protect his family, etc. Namely, this function was the main one of the imposed gender male roles. The toleration of nursing and its better perception may be related to the traditional perception of women as being called upon to nurse, to care, to help, to be at a man's side, etc. At the same time, despite the negative reaction of society, the heroism of Ukrainian women members of the USR association is a unique experience of women's emancipation due to the war.

It is quite valuable to consider the reasoning of the researcher O. Bezhuk in the paper “Charitable activities of Ukrainian women during the First World War and in the post-war period”. The paper presents thoughts on the integration of Ukrainian women into the socio-political activities of the state against the background of military operations, which caused the consolidation of women and further joint work. Thus, the result of this study is the creation and widespread involvement in the Ukrainian women's committee for assistance to wounded soldiers. The main tenets on which the committee relied in its activities were: consideration of its own strength and capabilities, non-govern- ment, economic independence and cooperation. Due to the observance of these principles, notes O. Bezhuk, Ukrainian women received permission for their activities from the Red Cross and became a legitimate organisation [28].

Thus, considering and results of the study in comparison with the findings of this paper, it is reasonable to note that the First World War was a catalyst for the urgent emancipation of women. It was as a result of a series of tragic events, which resulted in a large-scale armed clash of dozens of countries, that women were able to declare themselves as an equal participant in public activities.

Analysing the data obtained, it is advisable to note that in some enterprises and factories in Europe, women completely or partially replaced men, the majority of women were able to master new professions, and become qualified employees of a particular industry. Thus, despite the masculine profile of professions related to military production, the share of women who occupied these jobs was significantly higher than jobs in other enterprises.

An important consequence of the opportunity for women to express themselves was the granting of their voting rights in post-war times in a number of countries, etc.

The issue of women's military experience and patriotism is also interesting. In most countries, for example, France, women's military formations were banned, because this went against gender ideas about women. But the experience of Ukrainian women proves the possibility of militarisation of women, in particular, through the participation of women in the legion of Ukrainian Sich Riflemen.

Despite attempts to restore the position of European women to pre-war conditions, it is impossible to ignore the fundamental changes that contributed to the emancipation and consolidation of women around the world.

Conclusions

As a result of the study, the issue of the experience of European women during the Great War of 1914-1918 was clarified. Attention was paid to the situation of women in pre-war times, which was characterised by a lack of equality with representatives of the other gender, the inability to work in certain positions, and restrictions on obtaining education and speciality.

Some statistics on the employment of women in enterprises as a result of the outbreak of the First World War against the background of mobilisation have been clarified. For example, some factories had approximately 90% of female staff with varying skill levels. According to the data obtained as a result of the study, it is possible to state an increase in the number of working French women by almost half, and their employment in the industrial sector was 20%. Indicators for working Ukrainian women were lower - 10% of women held exclusively male positions in industrial enterprises.

The militarisation of women was uneven on the territory of different countries, so, for example, if in France the participation of women at the front was prohibited, then on the territory of Ukraine women took an active part in combat operations as part of the legion of Ukrainian Sich Riflemen. In particular, Ukrainian women heroines of the First World War are Anna Dmyterko, Sofia Galechko, Olena Stepanova and others, most of who were honoured with awards.

An important consequence of the First World War, as it was found in the study, was the close cooperation of women and the emergence of patriotic, nationalist colouring in women's communities. This, in particular, prompted them to create various leagues, alliances, committees, whose activities were aimed at helping the troops of a particular country. Another logical consequence of the emancipation of women was the granting of their right to vote in a number of countries immediately after the end of the war. The research is not limited exclusively to this topic. The following studies should be devoted to issues related to women's experience during the Second World War, it would be quite interesting to conduct a comparative study of the attitude of society towards female military personnel in different years, find out statistics that would allow the authors to assess the level of involvement of female representatives in the armed forces on the side of different countries, it is also advisable to also investigate the contribution of women to the course of modern wars.

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