Natural history museology: establishment and formation of its theoretical bases

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Natural history museology: establishment and formation of its theoretical bases

Oksana Chervonenko, Dmytro Kepin, National Museum of Natural History at the National Academy of Science of Ukraine Kyiv

Abstract

The article presents a brief historical outline of the formation and development of natural history museology in Europe in the 15th-19th centuries. The development of scientific knowledge at that time affects the idea of the world order and the place of man in it, and the combination of knowledge with practical experience leads to the birth of true science. It is shown that one of the most important components of the development of natural sciences, in particular biological sciences, was the collection of naturalia (i.e. objects of natural origin), the rapid surge of interest in which contributed to the Great Geographical Discoveries. In chronological order, the further historical development of museum work from private collections in Italy to the formation of a prototype of a genuine museum, which performs the main museum functions such as amassment, storage and demonstration of collections, is considered.

The role of prominent naturalists and philosophers such as F. Bacon, C. Linnaeus, and J.-W. Goethe in the development of museum work is considered and little known facts about their work in this area are presented. The first works of art that show the interiors of “Kunstkameras ”, which became widespread in Europe in the 17th-18th centuries, are briefly considered. According to the authors, it is on the portrait of the Belarusian educator F. Skorina, which was published in Prague in 1517-1519, that the interior of the first Renaissance “kunstkammer” collections is depicted. Separately, the development of museology in Ukraine since the time of Yuriy Kotermak (Drohobych) (1450-1494) is considered and the differentiation of the concept of “museum ” in the monuments of Ukrainian literature of the period of the 16th-18th centuries is studied.

The authors considered the methodological foundations of natural history museology and analysed the existing classifications of various branches of science. The specificity of natural history museology in the system of museological science is shown, the issue of singling out natural history museology as an independent discipline is discussed. It is proved that the periodization of museology and museum work in certain territories in historical time can be considered correct; the author's development of the periodization of natural history museology in Europe is also given.

Keywords: history of science; Europe museology; natural history museum; collection of naturalia; development of science museum in Ukraine.

Анотація

Природнича музеологія: історія становлення та формування теоретичних засад

Оксана Червоненко, Дмитро Кепін, Національний науково-природничий музей НАН України

The first treaties on museology in Europe appeared in the 16-17^th centuries - works of S. on Kvichebergau, Munich 1565; F. Bocci, Florence 1591; C. Clement, Lyon 1635; J. Ziebmacher, Leipzig 1658; J. D. Major, Kiel 1674; and J. Reiske, Wolfenbuttel 1685 (Zygulski, 1982 ; Waidacher, 1999, p.368).

In these treaties, a museum is defined as “a collection of antique materials and items which are of particular interest for learned people and heads of schools, and items

which are collected, displayed and recorded according to scientific methods”. S. Von Kvichebergau was the first in European museology who developed the structure of an “ideal” museum consisting of eight sections, which would present the history of human culture and the natural history of a certain region of a country. The display of such kind of museum would be devoted to the achievements of the scientific thought in the study of natural and historical disciplines. The scientist practically proposed the plan of a thematic museum exhibition. In 1561, the first catalogue appeared in the history of museology - the catalogues of natural and historical collections of Leiden, the Netherlands (Kepin, 2005).

The English philosopher F. Bacon, who founded the experimental science of the Modern era, noted in his work “Pohvala Greiy” (1599) that any scientific establishment should have a library, a botanical garden with menagerie and a pond for fish - “a universal model of nature created privately, a cabinet of natural and artificial items, a chemical laboratory” (Sotnikova, 2004).

In another work, “The New Atlantis” published in 1627, the philosopher practically described the structure of an academy of sciences in the description of “Solomon's House”. He proposed to display, in separate rooms, inventions and sculptures of inventors, that is, he first proposed the idea of a museum of science and technology (Bacon, 1977). In this works, Bacon also gave a description of orchards, gardens, apothecaries, parks, “reserves for animals”.

In 1621, the Danish physician Ole Worm established the first scientific natural history cabinet (Fig. 6). In 1655, he published the catalogue of his collections in Copenhagen under the title “Museum Wormianum, seu, Historia rerum rariorum: tam naturalium, guam artificiguae Hafniae Danorum in aedibus authoris servantur”. In this book, he presented a description of all private collections he was familiar with in European countries. Museum items were classified by the three kingdoms of nature (minerals, plants, and animals) and by artificialia (artificial fabricated items). In his last will and testament, Ole Worm presented his own collection to King Frederick III. Since 1670, the collection has been displayed in the wing of the Marine Arsenal in Copenhagen (Yureneva, 2002; Grickevich, 2004).

Figure 6. Ole Worm's cabinet of curiosities, from Museum Wormianum Historia, 1655 (Richards, 2012).

The great Czech educator John Amos Comenius in his book “Orbis Sensualium Pictus” (1658) considered the Latin word “musйum” as “...est locus, ubi Studiosus, .secretus ab hominibus, solus sedet, studiis deditus...” (.a place, where a man who studies sciences. sits alone far from people devoting himself to the job.) (Komenskiy, 1957, p. 86 ).

In the 18th century, theoretic contributions in museology increased in European countries. In 1704-1714, in Frankfurt, three volumes of “Museum Museorum...”, an encyclopaedic edition by the German physician and collector M. B. Valentini were published. In 1727, in Leipzig, the handbook “Muzeographia...” was published by C. F. Neickel, in which the first classification of museums in Europe was proposed: 1. “Schatzkammer” -- collection of items made from precious metals, items of art and natural history; 2. “Galereie”; 3. “Kunstkammer” -- art cabinet consisting of items of arts and crafts, ceramics, glass, as well as tin, ivory, medals, coins, scientific instruments, plaster casts and graphic arts; 4. “Antiguitatenkammer” -- cabinet of antiquities mainly of Italian origin; 5. “Studio-Museum” consisting of books, manuscripts, papyri, small plastics; 6. “Rarittatemkammer” (or “Wunderkammer”) -- a cabinet of unique collection of rare or artistically made items; 7. “Naturalienkabinett” -- cabinet of natural history (Zygulski, 1982, p. 34-38; Waidacher 1999, pp. 137-- 148).

A great contribution into museology was made by C. Linnaeus (1707--1778). Based on his own collection he created a natural history museum in Uppsala in the 1730s. Linnaeus was one of the few scientists who devoted great attention to the development of natural history museology terminology. In particular, in 1732 he published his treatise “Instructio musei rerum naturalium”, in which he defined a museum as an institute which functions include collecting, storing and scientific investigation of material testimonies of humans and natural specimens. Linnaeus was the first who began to prepare museum workers having disciples from several countries, including the Russian Empire, who had defended their theses in natural history museology (Bobrov, 1970, p. 29).

The largest figure in the German culture of the Enlightenment and Classicism J. W. von Goethe devoted great attention to the development of theoretic bases of museums and to methods of preservation of the natural and cultural heritage. In 1777, he developed a project of a museum display of a silver and copper mine in Ilmenau. Goethe proposed methodological recommendations to the conservation of natural history and anthropology collections. From 1803 until his death, he was the head of the library, museum and natural history faculty at the University of Jena. In 1815, he was appointed state minister of the Grand Duchy of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach becoming “head of supervision of the work of direct institutions of science and art in Weimar and Jena”. The philosopher proposed his own classification of museums: art museums (complexes); art galleries; cabinets-museums (Goethe, 1858).

In European museology, Goethe was one of the firsts asking the question “On what auditorium should be exhibitions oriented?” According to him, a museum display should consider the interests of different age groups. Goethe distinguished the methods of creating natural history exhibitions: by braches of knowledge or by a systematic and comparative-typological principle.

Goethe was also concerned about the architecture and artistic decisions on the museum display. Later in his work “Theory of Colours” (1810), he first discovered the relations between colour impressions and the mental state of people (Goethe, 1957). On the page of his journal “On Art and Antiquity” in 1816 Goethe proposed the term “Museumskunde”, that is “museology” (Goethe, 1858).

The establishment of museology in Ukraine

In Ukraine, the original antique understanding of “museum”, prevailing in the era of the Byzantine Empire, as a “sanctuary”, “treasury”, “temple” was widespread unlike the Renaissance understanding of “museum” in its Italian variant as a place of amassment of systematised and described items for their preservation, investigation and for education (with no cultic function).

The hypothesis that the term “museum” was introduced into the science in Ukraine by Yuriy Drohobych-Kotermak (1450-1494), an outstanding figure of the Renessaince, doctor of arts and medicine, rector of the University of Bologna, was proposed by the Ukrainian museologist Yu. A. Omelchenko (Omelchenko, 1999; Omelchenko & Danilova, 1999), although without referring to any original source. In Omelchenko's opinion, Ukrainian scientists and cultural figures used the term “museum” in the 16-18^th centuries in the same understanding as in the Italian Renessaince (Omelchenko, 1999).

Therefore, we consider the differentiation of the term “museum” in monuments of the Ukrainian literature of the 16-18^th centuries.

Four scientific works and two letters of Yu. Drohobych-Kotermak have reached our days. They are written in Latin and the word “museum” is absent in them. Based on the analysis of the scientist's works we can assume that he could have his own botanical collection - a herbarium (Drogobych, 2001) (Fig. 7).

In the ancient Slavonic literature, the word “treasury” in the meaning of “museum” (in the understanding of ancient Greeks) is used in the collection of works “Knyzhka...” [Book...] (late 16^th century) by I. Vishenskiy (Vishenskiy, 1955 ).

The term “museum” in monuments of Ukrainian literature was not used before the late 16^th century and in the 17-18^th centuries the word had several meanings. For example, in the “Latin Lexicon” created by Ye. Slavynetskyi in 1642 and widely known in those times, the word “museum” is defined as “a place for studying” (Nimchuk; Tsiluiko, 1973).

Figure 7. Monument to Yuri Drohobych-Kotermak in Drohobych (Lviv region). Sculptor Theodosius Brugge (1999). Photo by D. Kepin, 2014.

In the “Treatise on the Soul” (1625) written in Old Polish by the rector of Kyiv Brotherhood School (1620-1624) K. Sakovych, the Temple of Apollo in Delphi is considered in a multifunctional meaning as both “sanctuary” and “treasury”. There is a similar understanding of “museum” and “the Muses” in the famous philosophical dialogues of H. Skovoroda (1722-1794).

The spread of the Renaissance understanding of “museum” in the territory of Ukraine we associate with F. Skorina's educational activities.

The further development of museology in Ukraine took place in the late 18^th - early 19^th centuries, which is related to the studying of antique remains in the Northern Black Sea Region, to the organisation of higher educational establishments (universities, scientific communities) and to differentiation of sciences, foremost of archaeology, ethnography, geology, botany, and mineralogy. In the early 19 ^th century, the first historical and archaeological museums were organised in the Black Sea Region. At the University of Kharkiv, a cabinet of rarities and a mineralogical museum was established in 1807, while later, in 1835, also a Museum of Fine Arts. In the late 1800s, a zoological cabinet was created at the Kremenets Gymnasium of then Volyn Governorate, which became a basis for a similar cabinet at St. Volodymyr University of Kyiv (1834). In 1934, the cabinet became a zoological museum in the structure of the university. By the initiative of M. A. Maksymovych, the first rector of St. Volodymyr University of Kyiv and an outstanding botanist and historian, an archaeological museum was created in 1835, in which natural history collections were also stored. At the University of Lviv, a mineralogical museum was established in 1852, although the first collections originate from 1661. In 1919, by one of the very first decrees of the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences a zoological museum was organised, which since 1966 has been part of the National Museum of Natural History at the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, the leading natural history museum of Ukraine, one of the largest natural history museums of Europe.

The place of natural history museology among the branches of science

Determination of stages in the development of natural history museology is closely related to the history of nature science and it needs a brief overview of classification of sciences in general. Gnoseologists divide science into three large branches such as natural, technical and social sciences (Kedrov & Yudin, 2001). In such sense, natural history museology should be determined as an interdisciplinary science, which is part of museology and focuses on the axiological relation of people to nature. The research objects of natural history museology are monuments of natural origin (both objects of natural landscapes and specimens (naturalia) stored in museums). The subject of natural history museology is to display the history of life on Earth and of development of nature science (see the scheme in Figure 8).

Figure 8. Sheme. Structure of Natural History Museology.

The periodisation of natural history museology, in our opinion, should be based on research of its development and specifics with the consideration of changes in the social and cultural life of the society. Therefore, it is obvious that pйriodisation of museology can be correct only for a particular territory in a particular historical time.

Conclusions

Summing it all up, we can conclude that the emergence of natural history museums was promoted by the cultural and scientific development of the society. The first natural history museums were not successors of some pro-museums such as princely or monasterial treasuries, cabinets of naturalia, kunstkameras but appeared as a reaction for social needs reflecting the worldview of that particular society. We argue that in historical studies the terms “pre -museum”, “proto-museum” collecting, “promuseums” are temporal characteristics, while the terms “meso-”, “paleo-” and “neomuseum” epochs need further semantic clarifications. Considering the above arguments, we propose the following periodisation of natural history museum development for Europe:

I. Pre-scientific stage:

I-1. Primeval era - development of world perception and formation of natural knowledge of ancient humans

I-2. Greek-Roman era - appearance of the first written data on nature monuments of Europe;

I- 3. Middle Ages - appearance of the first natural history collections of museum importance in the 16^th century

II. Scientific stage:

II- 1. Renaissance and Enlightenment - the emergence of museology as science and formation of museums in the 15-17^th centuries;

II-2. 18^th century - first half of the 19^th century - the emergence of natural history museology and formation of awareness of objects of nature as those that require scientific research and possible preservation for future generations;

II-3. Second half of the 19^th century - first half of the 20^th century - development of scientific concepts of natural history collections display;

II-4. Second half of the 20^th century - establishment of scientific schools of museology and scientific disciplines.

The formation of natural history museology in Ukraine took place in the second half of the 19^th century to the 1920-1930s. Methodological bases for exposition, preservation and census of natural items were developed during this very period.

natural history museology science

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