Realms of Memory of the First Ukrainian Political Emigrants: On the Example of P.Orlyk (1710-1720)

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Institute of History of Ukraine NAS of Ukraine

Realms of Memory of the First Ukrainian Political Emigrants: On the Example of P.Orlyk (1710-1720)

Vasyl Kononenko, Candidate of Historical Sciences (Ph. D. in History),

Senior Research Fellow

Kyiv, Ukraine

Abstract

The aim of the article. The investigation deals with study of the realms of memory of the first Ukrainian political йmigrй representatives (in the first half of the 18th century) on the example of the hetman in exile, Pylyp Orlyk. Realms of memory (lieux de mйmoire) are shown as structural elements from which Ukrainian identity was formed at that time. The research is based on historical documents that belonged to P.Orlyk or were written with his participation. In the article is to reconstruct the realms of memory of political emigrants (on the example of P.Orlyk). The article uses the methodology of historical science, primarily the analysis of specific lieux de mйmoire. The scientific novelty of the article is the analysis of Cossack realms of memory, which became the basis for the development of Ukrainian identity at that time.

Conclusions. The article highlights examples of such realms of memory, territory, cities, rivers, historical heroes, elements of political system, visual lieux de mйmoire. Kyiv is shown as an example of the city that established as a key Cossack realm of memory and influenced the Ukrainian identity. Personality of B.Khmelnytskyi is considered as a lieu de mйmoire that played an important role in various forms of Ukrainian identity. The Rights and Freedoms and the institution of the general treasurer (pidskarbii) were studied as realms of memory that determined the political values of Cossack society. Cossack Regalia (kleinody) are depicted as a visual expression of Cossack values and identity.

Keywords: Orlyk, Ukrainian political emigration, Hetmanshchyna, realms of memory, lieux de mйmoire.

Анотація

«Місця пам'яті» перших українських політичних емігрантів: на прикладі П.Орлика (1710--1720 рр.)

Василь Кононенко кандидат історичних наук, старший науковий співробітник, Інститут історії України НАН України (Київ, Україна),

Статтю присвячено аналізу «місць пам'яті» («lieux de mйmoire») представників української політичної еміґрації (мазепинців) на прикладі першої декади діяльності гетьмана в екзилі П. Орлика. «Місця пам'яті» показано як структурні елементи, з яких формувалася тогочасна українська ідентичність. Дослідження ґрунтується на історичних документах, що належали перу П.Орлику або були написані за його участі. Методологія ґрунтується на принципах історизму, системності, науковості, комплексному аналізі опублікованих та архівних джерел, структурному аналізі «lieux de mйmoire». Ключовим є застосування аналізу конкретних «місць пам'яті» під кутом зору їх функції у суспільстві Гетьманщини. Наукова новизна. Здійснено аналіз козацьких «місць пам'яті», котрі стали основою для розвитку тодішньої української ідентичності. Висновки. Як «місця пам'яті» розглядаються території, міста, річки, історичні герої, елементи політичної системи, візуальні «lieux de mйmoire». На прикладі Києва показано, як місто утвердилося в іпостасі ключового козацького «місця пам'яті». Постать Б. Хмельницького розглянуто як «lieu de mйmoire», котре відіграло важливу роль у різних формах української ідентичності. «Права та вольності», а також інститут ґенерального підскарбія вивчено як «місця пам'яті», що визначали політичні цінності козацької спільноти. Клейноди зображено як візуальний вираз козацьких цінностей та ідентичності. Ключові слова: Орлик, українська політична еміґрація, Гетьманщина, «місця пам'яті».

This article shows how the elements of Ukrainian identity were established on the basis of the realms of memory of the first Ukrainian political emigrants (primarily using the example of Pylyp Orlyk). The realms of memory of political emigrants were based on the values and symbols of the Hetmanshchyna's elite of the beginning of the 18 th century, and became the bricks from which the identity of Orthodox Rights and Freedoms was formed. Education was one of these values.

Due to education Pylyp Orlyk was in Kyiv, and later it became a resource that helped him advance through his Cossack administration career. Understanding the values of Cossack Rights and Freedoms and the ability to successfully present them to Cossacks, Zaporizhians, as well as to foreigners allowed P.Orlyk to become hetman and remain one for almost a third of a century. Therefore, the study of realms of memory as the basis of Ukrainian identity at that time is an interesting and promising problem. The study of collective memory has its own history HalbwachsM. Les cadres sociaux de la mйmoire. - Paris, 1925. - 299 p.. In France, for example, the study of collective memory has a long tradition Constructing the Past: Essays in Historical Methodology / Ed. by J. Le Goff, P.Nora. -Cambridge, 1985. - 217 p.

³ HalbwachsM. La mйmoire collective. - Paris, 1950. - 170 p.

⁴ Nora P. Between Memory and History: Les Lieux de Mйmoire II Representations. - 1989, Spring. - 26: Special Issue: Memory and Counter-Memory. - P.7-24.

⁵ Доронин А. Введение к сборнику II «Места памяти» руси конца XV - середины XVIII в. -Москва, 2019. - С.5-13.

⁶ About Hetmanate see: Kohut Z.E. Russian centralism and Ukrainian autonomy: Imperial absorption of the Hetmanate: 1760s - 1830s. - Cambridge, 1988. - 358 p. About the historiography of Hetmanate see also: Idem. Post-Soviet Studies of the Cossack Elite: The Present State of Research and Future Tasks II Harvard Ukrainian Studies. - 2015I2016. - 34. - №1-4. - P.373-384.. An important milestone was the publication of multi-volume work Les Lieux de mйmoire by the reputable French historian Pierre Nora. These volumes initiated the study of the constructs that made up the memory of the past. He called them realms of memory (lieux de mйmoire). However, the French historian did not base his doctrine of memory on an empty place. P.Nora developed the concept of Maurice Halbwachs, the founder of historical collective memory³. He developed a separate approach to covering the past through the analysis of the memory of certain social groups. His main idea was the working hypothesis, that memory existed only within a social group. For P.Nora, the collective memory of a social group exists as so-called constructs - lieux de mйmoire. Jeanne d'Arc, French both literature and wine are the constructs on which the collective memory is strung and the French identity is created. They are not tied to a territory like Paris, but are the constructive bricks, or realms of memory that shape the historical identity of social groups. Since the community (of the state, autonomy, nation) consists of the social groups, thus, it is possible to reconstruct the history of the entire country. Definitely, such history will be different from the traditional positivist event history. In the territory of the Middle-Dnipro Ukraine 300-400 years ago, educated people understood history primarily as handwritten chronicles and collections. From the 19^th century for educated people history is transformed into books written on the basis of the analysis of archival documents, diaries, historical texts, letters, etc. For the generation Y and Z memory of the past is very important, and it exists in certain constructions, or realms of memory. These lieux de mйmoire exist offline and online and play an important role in people's lives⁴.

Thus, the collective memory of a past society (nation or social group) can be studied as realms of memory of this society. Lieux de mйmoire are not always tied to a certain territory, they could be a certain hero, historical event or historical artifact. For the emergence of realms of memory and its development, researchers identify three factors:

1. Something to be remembered through these lieux de mйmoire (nation, religion, historical heroes, capitals, historical events and artifacts etc.).

2. Social groups that define specific realm of memory.

3. Social groups that recognize these lieux de mйmoire⁵.

The main function of a realm of memory is to establish a certain identity. Analysis and in-depth study of lieux de mйmoire is useful for understanding of Ukrainian both identity and cultural heritage. Among the Ukrainian realms of memory the lieux de mйmoire of Cossack Hetmanate plays an important part⁶. Although Ukrainian autonomy was a small state in size and population, it generated a significant cultural heritage based on Early Modern Rzeczpospolita and Rus traditions. The realms of memory of the Hetmanshchyna included the following:

1. Territory, cities, rivers: the territory of the “Fatherland”, Kyiv, Zaporizhian Sich (Host), Dnipro River.

2. Heroes: nameless “warlike Khazars”, hetman Bohdan Khmelnytskyi.

3. Political system: Rights and Freedoms, the institutions of the Cossack Council (Rada), of the hetman and institutions of the general pidskarbii (general treasurer), etc.

4. Visual lieux de mйmoire - Cossacks kleinods (mace, bunchuk, seal, cannonry, etc.), written The Treaties and Covenants (1710), artistic images on socio-political issues, etc.

Thus, modern knowledge about the realms of memory of the Ukrainian emigrant elite is extremely relevant for studies on the Hetmanshchyna. A number of works on this subject have already appeared in historiography Szpocinski A. Miejsca pamiзci (lieux de mйmoire) // Teksty Drugie. - 2008. - №4. - S.11-20; Бовгиря А. «Украина обоих берегов Днепра»: Гетманщина конца XVII-XVIII в. и дискурс единой отчизны // «Места памяти» руси конца XV - середины XVIII в. - С.378-397. About historiography of Pylyp Orlyk see also: Kroll P. Filip Orlik (1672-1742) w polskiej historiografii (345 rocznica urodzin) // Studia Polsko-Ukrainskie. - 2017. - 4. - S.145-157; Kononenko V Вплив традиції «pacta conventa» на укладання й написання «Договорів та постанов» 1710 р. у сучасній українській історіо-графії (1991-2013) // Україна в Центрально-Східній Європі. - Вип.16. - К., 2016. - С.307-321. The books connected with theme of the article see: Дмитришин І. Григорій Орлик, або Козацька нація у французькій дипломатії. - К., 2019. - 496 с.; ЧухлібТ.В. Ідеальна держава в Україні? Козацький проект 1710 р. - К., 2011. - 103 c.; Кресін О. Політико-правова спадщина української політичної еміграції першої половини XVIII ст. - К., 2001. - 248 c.; Subtelny O. The Mazepists: Ukrainian Separatism in the Early Eighteenth Century. - New York, 1981. - 280 p.; Sysyn F. The Image of Russia and Russian- Ukrainian Relations in Ukrainian Historiography of the Late 17th and Early 18 th Centuries // Culture, Nation, and Identity: The Ukrainian-Russian Encounter (1600-1945) / Ed. by A.Kappeler, Z.Kohut, F.Sysyn, M. von Hagen. - Edmonton; Toronto, 2003. - P.108-143; Idem. Fatherland in Early Eighteenth-Century Ukrainian Political Culture // Mazepa e il suo tempo / Mazepa and his time: History, Culture, Society / Ed. G.Siedina. - Alessandria, 2004. - P.39-53.. This article deals with the following lieux de mйmoire of the Ukrainian emigrant elite: geographical objects, a historical hero, political symbols and values.

Kyiv as lieu de mйmoire

For the hetman in exile, P.Orlyk and other authors of The Treaties and Covenants of 1710, Kyiv was the capital of the Hetmanshchyna. At the beginning of the 18^th century the modern Ukrainian capital was represented as the center of Ancient Rus or the metropolitan's residence, or was represented, first of all, by the Kyiv-Pechersk Lavra or as a fortress with a large garrison of Muscovy's troops. For the Hetmanshchyna's administration, Kyiv was primarily the center of the regiment of the same name. emigration memory ukraine orlyk mazepa

Moreover, at the beginning of the 18^th century the regimental chancellery of this regiment was moved to Kozelets, that is, within the framework of the Cossack political system the status of Kyiv was further lowered. In The Treaties and Covenants (1710) a separate item is devoted to Kyiv on confirmation of the rights and privileges of the city «Пакти і конституції» Української козацької держави (до 300-річчя укладення). - Л., 2011. - С.111.. In the Latin version of the document (made or edited between April 5 and May 10, 1710). A new vision of Kyiv among Ukrainian emigrants is presented in Orlyk's letter to the Grand Vizier dated May 10, 1712, in which it was stated that Kyiv could not be separated from Ukraine, and Ukraine from Kyiv «Nec Kiioviam sine Ukraina, nec Ukrainam sine Kiiovia unquam posse esse» (Copia Literarum a Duce Orlik ad Supremum Visirium, X mart., 1712 // Переписка и другие бумаги шведского короля Карла XII, польского Станислава Лещинского, генерального писаря Филиппа Орлика и киевского воеводы Иосифа Потоцкого, на латинском и польском языках. - С.59).. In such work as The Relation about Kyiv (1712), it is said that the Ukrainian Cossacks have the exclusive right to Kyiv and the Right-bank and Left-bank Ukraine. This was argued on the basis of the idea of “combining” the Cossacks with the ancient Khazars, previously prescribed in The Treaties and Covenants (1710) Центральний державний історичний архів України, м. Київ. - Ф.2236. - Оп.1. - Спр.71. - Арк.5-6.. Therefore, Moscow had no grounds for claims to Kyiv «inuste Moscus praetendit metropolim Ucrainae urbem Kijoviam, eamque ab Ucraina separare conatus» (see: Там само). This is discussed in more detail in Ya.Zatyliuk's article: Затилюк Я. Предки «козацького малоросійського народу» і киє- во-руська спадщина в уявленні еліти часів Пилипа Орлика // Пилип Орлик: життя, політика, тексти: Мат. Міжнар. наук. конф. «Ad fonts»: до 300-річчя Бендерської конституції 1710 р., Київ, НаУКМА, 14-16 жовтня 2010. - К., 2011. - С.134.. In Orlyk's Memorial to the Tatar khan (1713) it was claimed that if the Turkish sultan recognized the rights of the hetman to all of Ukraine (including Kyiv), the latter would be able to regain control over this territory Российский государственный архив древних актов. - Ф.124. - Оп.1. - 1713 г. - Л.1-9 об. Невідомий універсал Мазепи зі шведської бібліотеки (публікація та коментарі Олександра Дубини, переклад з латинської Ольги Циганок) // Сіверянський літопис. - 2009. - №6. - С.5-11. Витяги з покірного меморіала Війська Запорозького до святого королівського маєстату Швеції від 26 вересня 1709 р. // «Пакти і конституції» Української козацької держави (до 300-річчя укладення). - С.353. Договоры и поста^влепА правъ и волностш войсковыхъ // Там само. - С.78-79. Там само.. P.Orlyk and his supporters (especially General Secretary Ivan Maksymovych) represented Kyiv as a Cossack realm of memory, which absorbed similar to the capital functions defined by the military chancellor and historian Samiilo Velychko regarding Chyhyryn.

Bohdan Khmelnytskyi as lieu de mйmoire

The most successful hero who survived the Hetmanshchyna, the Russian Empire and the USSR in the memory of Ukrainians appeared after the Battle of Poltava in 1709. Ukrainians placed it on 5-hryvnia banknote. For all modern Ukrainians, B.Khmelnytskyi crystallized as a realm of memory on one of the national banknotes. In many sources of Ukrainian origin of the second half of the 17^th - early 18^th centuries B.Khmelnytskyi is a typical leader of the anti-Polish uprising (in some cases even a negative character). In the texts of so-called war of manifestos, lasted from the fall of 1708 to the spring of 1709, the God-given hetman headed the list of rulers such as I.Vyhovskyi and P.Doroshenko¹⁵. After the Battle of Poltava (8 July 1709) B.Khmelnytskyi became an outstanding hero for emigrants, from which I.Mazepa and P.Orlyk took an example. In particular, the Mazepists appealed to the authority of Khmelnytskyi already on September 26, 1709 in The Excerpts from the Humble Memorial of the Zaporizhian Army to the Holy Royal Estate of Sweden, where they invoked Charles XII to approve the western border along the Sluch River, as it was under the God-given hetman, according to the conditions of Treaty of Zboriv (Assembly contract)¹⁶. About the leader of the uprising of 1648 in The Treaties and Covenants (1710), it is said that God nominated a hetman of glorious memory B.Khmelnytskyi to defend the Holy Orthodoxy¹⁷. In The Bender Constitution, the “glorious memory of Bohdan Khmelnytskyi” is repeatedly mentioned. He raises the people from their knees, concludes an alliance with the Swedish king Charles X, under his rule the Moscow tsar does not dare to violate the integrity of the Fatherland, its Rights and Freedoms¹⁸. As written in the manifesto of April 4, 1712, only “after the death of the blessed memory of hetman Bohdan Khmelnytskyi, the Moscow Empire, using the most diverse methods, violated the rights and freedoms of the Cossack nation”¹⁹ Орлик П. Конституція, маніфести та літературна спадщина: Вибрані твори. - К., 2006. - С.120.

²⁰ Там само. - C.84-85.

²¹ «Войско Zапорозкое не для чого иншого под протекцію ИаяснЪйшого Королевского В[е]л[и]ч[е]ства Шведского YДалося и тепер оной крЪпко и непоколЪбимо держится, тылко для для поправы и подвигненя Yпалых правъ своих и волностей войсковых, договорили и постановили з Ясневелможнымъ Его Милостю паномъ Филиппомъ Орликомъ» (see: Договоры и пост^вленА правъ и волностей войсковыхъ. - С.84-85).

²² Там само. - С.90-91, 100-101, 114-115, 116-117.

²³ Витяги з покірного меморіала Війська Запорозького до святого королівського маєстату Швеції... - С.353.

²⁴ Confirmatio horum Pactorum a Rege Sueciae / Привілей від 10 травня // «Пакти і конституції» Української козаць-кої держави (до 300-річчя укладення). - С.346.

²⁵ Instructio Dom. Dom. Demetrio Horlenko etc. extraordinariis Zaporoviensibus Legatis ad Portam Otomanicam, a Duce Orlik in urbe Baba data III d. 9-bris, 1711 / Переписка и другие бумаги шведского короля Карла XII, польского Станислава Лещинского, генерального писаря Филиппа Орлика и киевского воеводы Иосифа Потоцкого, на латин-ском и польском языках. - С.66.

²⁶ Переклад привілею імператора турків, що його було дано гетьманові запорозькому Пилипові Орлику на володіння Україною цього боку Дніпра. Сталося це в Бендері в царській канцелярії 1712 року 10 травня // Орлик П. Конституція, мані-фести та літературна спадщина. - С.129. See also: Пріцак О. Один чи два договори Пилипа Орлика з Туреччиною на початку другого десятиріччя вісімнадцятого століття? // Український археографічний щорічник. - Вип.1. - Л., 1992. - С.307-320.. Thus, the God-given hetman became the ideal hero of the ideal Hetmanate dreamed of by Ukrainian emigrants.

Rights and Freedoms as a realm of memory

Rights and Freedoms, Cossack councils, The Treaties and Covenants (1710), hetman's governments, pidskarbii and other Cossack institutions were for representatives of Ukrainian elite those lieux de mйmoire through which the political values of Cossack society were understood and defended. The integrity of Rights and Freedoms before I.Mazepa's uprising was presented as being violated not only by external interference in the Ukrainian life of the northeastern autocrat, but also by the pernicious Moscow despotic influences on the hetmans. In The Bender Constitution (1710), it was imagined that the Ukrainian rulers after B.Khmelnytskyi transformed their power into an autocratic one and thereby “twisted the ancient order, the military rights and freedoms”²⁰. The transition to Swedish protection was presented as the return of the integrity of the Cossack Rights and Freedoms, and The Treaties and Covenants were concluded to seal this “return”²¹. The task of the newly elected hetman (as well as his successors) was to ensure, by means of Swedish protection and God's help, Rights and Freedoms in Cossack society²².

In Bendery in 1709, Ukrainian politicians asked the Swedish king for protection, “so that the neighboring lords do not try to subjugate our homeland by armed force or in any other way and not destroy the right for freedom”²³. That is, Rights and Freedoms, which lost their integrity in one way or another, stood in the same row with such a problem as encroachment by neighbours. The privilege of Charles XII dated May 10, 1710 (Confirmatio horum Pactorum a Rege Sueciae), also clarifies that P.Orlyk was elected as hetman “to preserve military rights and freedoms”²⁴. In the 9th point of Pylyp Orlyk's Instructions to the Ambassadors of the Zaporizhian Host to the Ottoman Empire dated November 3, 1711, it was also discussed that the Sultan should ensure the inviolability of Ukraine with its Rights and Freedoms²⁵. This was confirmed by the sultan: no one had the right to interfere with Ukrainian laws (rights) and freedoms (liberties), and the vizier himself had to monitor its inviolability²⁶. Thus, Rights and Freedoms were the realms of memory through which the Cossack intellectuals of the Hetmanshchyna understood the past. Rights and Freedoms were implemented at Cossack councils. At the latter, a hetman and Cossack officers were elected, and important decisions were made. I.Mazepa died in the night from 22 to 23 September, 1709, however, P.Orlyk became the Ukrainian ruler only six months later. This might be explained by the fact that he could be elected only at the council, and its holding required solving a number of problems.

As for the institution of the pidskarbii (treasurer), it is presented as permanent in The Treaties and Covenants (1710) Договоры и nocTanoanenA правъ и волностей войсковыхъ. - С.101-103.. The institution is presented as if it had always existed (although this only happened under I.Briukhovetskyi). In addition to the general pidskarbii, the governments of the treasuries were established in regiments and towns (according to the Latin text Pacta et Constitutiones). In general, The Treaties and Covenants paid more attention to towns than it might seem at first glance. If The Treaties and Covenants refer to confirmation of self-government in Kyiv and those towns that received it in the past Там само. - С.111., then in Pacta et Constitutiones it was about all urban centers without exception Pacta et Constitutiones legum libertatumque Exercitus Zaporoviensis inter illustrissimum dominum dominum Philippum Orlik, neoelectum Ducem Exercitus Zaporoviensis, et inter generales, colonellos, nec non eudem Exercitus Zaporoviensis, publico utriusque partis laudo Conventa ac in libera electione formali iuramento ab eodem illustrissimo Duce Corroborata Anno Domini 1710, Aprilis 5, ad Benderam // Переписка и другие бумаги шведского короля Карла XII, польского Станислава Лещинского, татарского хана, турецкого султана, генерального писаря Филиппа Орлика и киевского воеводы Иосифа Потоцкого, на латинском и польском языках. - С.13-14.. According to the Latin text, the institution of the pidskarbii was planned to launch in each town; moreover, this “town” pidskarbii (Thesaurarius) had to be accountable to the regimental pidskarbii (Chiliarchatus): “[...] in the community of each city, a treasurer, subordinate to the regimental pidskarbii, should be elected and sworn in, who would have all income and expenses under his control and custody and truthfully enter them into the accounting books” Там же.. The novelty proposed in the Latin text was quite considered: the “town” pidskarbii was financially interested in protecting the townspeople, since it would have to pay for the abuse of travellers in the towns from its own funds «Якщо по щорічному обрахунку тих видатків буде поміченим у боргах і незаконних витратах, то їх варто відшкодувати з власних коштів того підскарбія, щоб повернути місту. Тому повинен вносити в облікові книги лише ті випадки, що пов'язані з поїздками у конкретній справі: хто з чиєю подорожною відбував подорож та якими вигодами користувався» (see: Там же).. In the Latin text in the case of limiting the abuse of travellers (according to the sphere of protection of the townspeople's interests) in contrast to the Ukrainian-language document Договоры и пocтanoaлenA правъ и волностш войсковыхъ. - С.110-111. there is an emphasis on the need to copy practices common in more developed countries.

So, pidskarbii in Latin text of The Bender Constitution became an important realm of memory of P.Orlyk, designed to modernize the socio-political system of the Hetmanshchyna. The Pacta et Constitutiones clauses created more or less good “picture” of order in the country, which was headed by P.Orlyk, and the protector was already Charles XII.

Kleinods as a lieux de mйmoire

Kleinods were among the visible signs of hetman power. Without kleinods, hetmans were not the head of the state. Therefore, in autumn 1709, the foreman (starshyna) requested that Andrii Voinarovskyi return all “the hetman's kleinods and our privileges and all the treasure intact” Витяги з покірного меморіала Війська Запорозького до святого королівського маєстату Швеції... - С.353.. In this list of Cossack values, the hetman's kleinods were enumerated in the first place. The return of the “kleinods” became one of the conditions of the Cossack leadership in the matter of electing a new hetman.

The word “kleinod” is translated from German as treasure, value. Cossack kleinods were not only valuable in a material sense - without a mace, a seal, a bunchuk, the hetman's government could not be imagined at all. In emigration, the attention paid by P.Orlyk to the visual symbols of the hetman's power in foreign territory is important. This applies to both the mace and the seal and bunchuk³⁴. The hetman's power was represented by a mace: P.Orlyk pledged the mace for creditors only under very difficult financial circumstances. It should be mentioned that he did not sell it, but rather pawned it with the hope of returning it. Important documents were sealed, for example The Treaties and Covenants^1,5. Heads of bunchuks - General bunchuzhnyi (bunchuk officers) played an important role in the represented authorities in the Hetmanshchyna, and they continued to play the same role in emigration. Even in 1719, in difficult living conditions in Sweden, the hetman had two General bunchuzhnyi who received significant amounts of money for their government³⁶. Thus, the study of collective memory in the environment of political emigration has great prospects for understanding of Cossack identity, since it can be understood only under the condition of reconstruction of its formation.

From the end of the 17th to early 18th century a number of narratives appeared in the Hetmanshchyna, which contained Cossack realms of memory. The territory, the Fatherland, the idea of the origin of the Cossacks from the Khazars, the figure of Khmelnytskyi, towns, political values became the constructs that were collectively remembered by Ukrainian political emigrants. The latter were to be adjusted to new challenges: some of the lieux de mйmoire were developed (Rights and Freedoms), others were modified on the basis of already existing ones (“Fatherland”, Kyiv), others were newly created (the political significance of the origin of the Cossacks from “warlike Khazars”, the permanent existence of the institution of the pidskarbii). Realms of memory acquired a symbolic meaning for emigrants as a social group and influenced on their identity. The quality of their creation is evidenced by the fact that the modern Ukrainian national narrative of the Hetmanshchyna of early 18 th century uses largely the same lieux de mйmoire that appeared 300 years ago.

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