Foreign Consulates in Odesa (1920s - 1930s)

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Petro Mohyla Black Sea National University (Mykolaiv, Ukraine)

Foreign Consulates in Odesa (1920s - 1930s)

Liudmyla Vovchuk

Abstract

The purpose of the research paper is to highlight the history of repatriation missions and consular institutions of Poland, Albania, Germany, Italy, Turkey, Japan and Spain in Odesa during 1922-1938, analysis of the main areas of activity within the consular district and the consular staff's characteristics.

The scientific novelty. The general picture of the foreign diplomatic presence in Odesa, represented by the repatriation missions of Turkey, Albania and Poland, as well as five consulates, has been reconstructed. Their personnel composition and key areas of activity are shown.

Conclusions. With the creation of Soviet Ukraine, Odesa continued to remain a strategically important city for both European and Asian countries, which, having restored diplomatic and consular relations with the USSR, opened their consulates here. During the 1920s and 1930s, the repatriation missions of Poland, Albania, and Turkey operated in the city first (during 1922-1925), and later the consular offices of three European countries - Germany, Italy, Spain, and two Asian countries - Turkey and Japan. The foreign consular institutions' diplomatic staff consisted exclusively of representatives of the countries they represented and were career diplomats. In turn, among the representatives of the administrative and technical staff were citizens of these countries and Soviet Ukraine, and the service staff consisted with local residents.

Since its establishment, foreign consular representatives have contributed to the development of trade, economic, cultural and scientific relations of their countries with the UkrSSR. Important spheres of consulates' activity were protection of the citizens' interests of their countries, organization of material assistance for them and promotion of their departure to their homeland. In the process of gathering information about the socio-political situation in the USSR, the consuls recorded the unfolding of the Holodomor, pointing out its culprits, noted the negative consequences of collectivization and industrialization, etc.

But, despite the constantly emphasized friendship in relations between the USSR and the countries listed above, their consulates and employees found themselves under the Soviet special services close supervision, which considered any consulates representatives' actions as espionage. In order to be fully effective, the special services recruited representatives from both consulate employees and persons who were in contact with the consul. And after the consulates were closed, they began the process of “cleaning” them. In 1937-1938, the USSR's relations with Italy, Germany, Turkey, Japan, and Spain became strained, which led to the closure of the consular network in Odesa.

Keywords: consul, consulate, mission, Odesa, Poland, Albania, Germany, Italy, Turkey, Japan, Spain, UkrSSR

Іноземні консульства в Одесі (1920-1930-х рр.)

Людмила Вовчук, Чорноморський національний університет імені Петра Могили (Миколаїв, Україна)

Анотація

repatriation mission consular institution

Мета статті полягає у висвітленні історії репатріаційних місій і консульських установ Польщі, Албанії, Німеччини, Італії, Туреччини, Японії та Іспанії в Одесі упродовж 1922-1938 рр., аналіз основних напрямків діяльності в межах консульського округу та характеристика консульського персоналу.

Наукова новизна. Реконструйовано загальну картину іноземної дипломатичної присутності в Одесі, що була представлена репатріаційними місіями Туреччини, Албанії та Польщі, а також п'ятьма консульствами. Показано їх кадровий склад і ключові напрями діяльності.

Висновки. Зі створенням радянської України Одеса й надалі продовжила залишатися стратегічно важливим містом як для європейських, так і азійських країн, які відновивши дипломатичні та консульські відносини з СРСР, відкривають тут свої консульства. Упродовж 1920-30-х рр. в місті діяли спочатку (протягом 1922-1925 рр.) репатріаційні місії Польщі, Албанії та Туреччини, а згодом консульські установи трьох європейських країн - Німеччини, Італії, Іспанії та двох азійських - Туреччини та Японії. Дипломатичний персонал іноземних консульських установ складався винятково з представників країн, які вони представляли, і були кар'єрними дипломатами. У свою чергу, серед представників адміністративно-технічного персоналу були як громадяни цих країн, так і радянської України, а обслуговуючий персонал складався з місцевих мешканців.

З моменту свого становлення іноземні консульські представники сприяли розвитку торговельно-економічних, культурних і наукових відносин своїх країн з УСРР/УРСР. Важливими сферами діяльності консульств був захист інтересів громадян своїх країн, організація для них матеріальної допомоги та сприяння їх виїзду на батьківщину. У процесі збирання інформації про суспільно-політичне становище в УСРР, консули фіксували розгортання Голодомору, вказуючи на його винуватців, відзначали негативні наслідки колективізації та індустріалізації тощо.

Але, незважаючи на постійно підкреслену дружність у відносинах між СРСР і вище переліченими країнами, їх консульства та працівники опинилися під пильним наглядом радянських спецслужб, які будь-які дії представників консульств розцінювали як шпигунські. Для повної результативності спецслужбами було завербовано представників як серед працівників консульства, так і осіб, які контактували з консулом. А після закриття консульств розпочали процес їхньої «зачистки». У 1937-1938 р. відносини СРСР з Італією, Німеччиною, Туреччиною, Японією та Іспанією набули напруженого характеру, що призвело до згортання консульської мережі в Одесі.

Ключові слова: консул, консульство, місія, Одеса, Польща, Албанія, Німеччина, Італія, Туреччина, Японія, Іспанія, УСРР

Introduction

Since its foundation, Odesa has become an economic, political and cultural center for many foreigners. Having a unique geographical position, the city has always been considered a bridge of international trade and cultural exchange. From the middle of the 19th century, Odesa occupies a central position in the transit and intermediary trade of the countries of Europe, the Near and Middle East, and becomes the main center for the export of bread in the region. With the creation of Soviet Ukraine, Odesa continued to be a strategically important city for both European and Asian countries, which, having restored diplomatic and consular relations with the USSR, opened their consulates in the city in order to intensify trade and economic relations and protect their citizens who lived in the city and its surroundings. During the 1920s and 1930s, the city housed the consular offices of five European countries - Poland, Albania, Germany, Italy, Spain and two Asian countries - Turkey and Japan, which from the first days of their opening were actively included in the southern Ukrainian region's socio-economic and cultural life.

The question of the foreign consular institutions' activity on the territory of Soviet Ukraine during the 1920s and 30s is currently gaining more and more interest among representatives of historical science. Currently, we have works that reveal certain aspects of the activities of foreign consular institutions in the UkrSSR, as well as, directly, separate works that highlight the activities of the Polish, German, Italian, and Japanese consulates in Odesa (L. Vovchuk Вовчук Л. Німецькі дипломати в Україні (1918-1938 рр.): просопографічний портрет // Україна та Німеччина: міждержавні відносини: збірник наукових праць / Голова ред. кол. Владислав Верстюк. Чернігів: Сіверський центр післядипломної освіти, 2018. С. 207-218; Вовчук Л. Не дочекалися італійського паспорта (родина Анжелі у жорнах Великого терору) // Південь України: етноісторичний, мовний, культурний та релігійний виміри: збірка наукових праць. Вип. 7. Херсон: ОЛДІ-Плюс, 2019. С. 68-73; Vovchuk L. Diplomatic corps of German consulates in Soviet Ukraine (1922-1938) // Przegl^d Nauk Historycznych. 2023. № 1 (22) [in print]; Вовчук Л. Радянські спецслужби vs японської дипломатії (на матеріалах японського консульства в Одесі у міжвоєнний період) // Сходознавство. 2022. № 89. С. 3-24., I. Matiash Матяш І. Іноземні представництва в Радянській Україні (1919-1991): протистояння і співпраця. Київ: Інститут історії України НАН України, 2020. 503 с.; Матяш І. Український дипломатичний архів як джерело дослідження діяльності Консульства Японії в Одесі в міжвоєнний період // Міжнародні зв'язки України: наукові пошуки і знахідки. 2022. Вип. 31. С. 202-228., L. Vovchuk and S. Kornovenko Вовчук Л., Корновенко С. Голодомор 1932-1933 рр. очима іноземних дипломатів // Емінак. 2019. № 4. С. 71-82., S. Pavlenko Павленко С. Консул "під пильним оком”: Танака Бун'іціро в Одесі // Східний світ. 2021. № 1. С. 18-34; Павленко С.С. Сасакі: спогади про Одесу та консульська служба // Східний світ. 2021. № 3. С. 39-54; Павленко С. Діяльність консульства Японії в Одесі під керівництвом Шімаду Шігуру. Частина І // Східний світ. 2022. № 2. С. 16-26; Павленко С. Діяльність консульства Японії в Одесі під керівництвом Шімаду Шігуру. Частина ІІ // Східний світ. 2022. № 3. С. 28-46; Павленко С. Камімура Шін'ічі: кохання чи кар'єра? // Сходознавство. 2022. № 89. С. 49-72., V. Savchenko and O. Trygub Савченко В., Тригуб О. Секретні співробітники ДПУ з одеського «Клубу іноземних моряків» // Сторінки історії: збірник наукових праць. 2019. Вип. 48. С. 118-134., Mattias Dornfeld, Enrico Seewald Dornfeld M., Seewald E. Deutschland - Ukraine. Hundert Jahre diplomatische Beziehungen. Berlin, 2017. 92 s. Arbeitspapiere des Forschungsverbundes SED-Staat; Nr. 50., J. Bruski Bruski J.J. Mi^dzy prometeizmem a Realpolitik: II Rzeczpospolita wobec Ukrainy Sowieckiej 1921-1926. Krakow, 2010. 416 s., M. Keipert and P. Grupp Keipert M., Grupp P. Biographisches Handbuch des deutschen Auswartigen Dienstes, 1871-1945. Herausgegeben vom Auswartigen Amt, Historischer Dienst. Band 1-5. F. Schoningh, Paderborn. 2005-2012., George Lensen Lensen G.A. Japanese Recognition of the U.S.S.R.: Soviet-Japanese Relations, 1921-1930. Sophia University, 1970.). At the same time, the existence of the Albanian, Spanish and Turkish consulates in Odesa remains an almost unexplored page of history. Some aspects of the formation, consular composition and activities of the Turkish consulate in Odesa during the 1920s and 1930s are covered in the materials of L. Vovchuk Вовчук Л. Турецьке консульство в Одесі (1922-1938 рр.) // ХХУ Сходознавчі читання А. Кримського: Матеріали міжнародної наукової конференції, 10 листопада 2022 р. Київ - Львів - Торунь: Liha-Pres, 2022. С. 151-154., S. Piskuriov, and V. Chernytskyi Піскурьов С.Є, Черницький В.Б. Репресії проти театральних діячів провінції у 30-ті роки ХХ ст. // Гілея. 2009. Вип. 24. С. 73-97..

The purpose of this paper is to create a general picture of the opening of foreign countries' missions and consular offices in Odesa, the consular staff s characteristics of these countries, their functions and main forms of activity in the region during the 1920s and 1930s.

The first foreign missions in Odesa (1921-1924)

The beginning of the foreign missions' establishment in Odesa was laid by the Delegation (Commission) on opting and repatriation, agreements on the formation of which were actively signed during 1921-1922. On February 24, 1921, the Ukrainian- Polish Agreement on Repatriation was concluded Соглашение о репатриации между РСФСР и УССР, с одной стороны, и Польшей, с другой, - во исполнение статьи 7-й договора о прелиминарных условиях мира, заключенного в Риге 12 октября 1920 года // Сборник действующих договоров, соглашений и конвенций, заключенных с иностранными государствами. Вып. I-II: действующие договоры, соглашения и конвенции, вступившие в силу до 1 января 1925 года. Москва: Издание литиздата НКИД, 1928. С. 180-191.. Since in the difficult conditions of that time it was quite difficult to quickly form relevant commissions and missions on the ground, the Polish embassy in Kharkiv authorized issuing the necessary documents to persons of Polish origin regarding the opt-in and repatriation of a member of the Odesa Polish community M.V. Szczepkowskyi According to the Odesa GPU report, M. Szczepkowskyi was a former member of the Cadet Party, for which he was twice arrested by Odesa Gubcheka. As "the Polish embassy's semi-official representative”, he transferred citizens to Polish citizenship, gave advice and the opportunity to leave for his homeland. He served in several Soviet institutions. - The Sectoral State Archive of the Security Service of Ukraine (SSA SSU). Fund 13. List 1. File 426. Vol. 2. P. 412 back. (a similar situation occurred in Kyiv, where the repatriation delegation was headed by a local resident, Adam Roshkovskyi).

Since the person M.V. Szczepkowskyi was clearly not satisfied with the bodies of the OGPU (Joint State Political Directorate) and NKZS (People's Commissariat for Foreign Affairs), and besides, on April 30, 1922, the first term of the option commissions expired, then he was removed from the duties of the Polish representative, and the Delegation for repatriation acquired a completely official character according to letter № 318 of the Polish Government's Commissioner in matters of opting on the USSR's territory dated May 6, 1922 The Central State Archives of Supreme Bodies of Power and Government of Ukraine (CSA SBP&GU). Fund 4. List 1. File 885. P. 4-4back, 11-11back.. According to the Polish historian Jan Jacek Bruski, the updated Delegation in Odesa began its work in June 1922, headed by Tadeusz Kunicki Bruski J.J. Mi^dzy prometeizmem a Realpolitik... S. 90.. Instead, the materials of the Odesa GPU indicate that with the removal of M. Szczepkowskyi, the role of «Embassy Plenipotentiary» was assigned, with the permission of the NKZS, to Michal Soroko, who arrived with Secretary T. Kunicki. Soroko's task was to make it easier for Polish optants in Odesa and the district to submit applications for the choice of citizenship, to inform them about the necessary documents, etc., that is, everything related to the opt-in procedure.

It is interesting that none of the representatives was entrusted with the performance of consular functions. These issues were handled by the Polish Embassy in Kharkiv. Thus, during 1922, the consular department's head, an expert on foreign trade issues of the Polish diplomatic mission in Kharkiv, Dzenkovskyi, came to Odesa, who, after staying in the city for about two days, returned to Kharkiv, taking with him the documents of persons who had acquired Polish citizenship SSA SSU. Fund 13. List 1. File 426. Vol. 2. P. 412 back-413..

Approximately in August-September 1922, all matters related to opting were transferred to the management of T. Kunicki Ibidem., and in September 1923, a military intelligence officer, lieutenant Henryk Kintopf Bruski J.J. Mi^dzy prometeizmem a Realpolitik... S. 123-125., became the secretary. The main goal of H. Kintopf was intelligence activity, which was quickly exposed by agents of the GPU.

At the end of October 1923, the Odesa GPU detained members of the network created by H. Kintopf in Odesa, Mykolaiv, and Sevastopol, and a week later arrested employees and supporters of the delegation. In March 1924, the National Security Service recognized Henryk Kintopf as persona non grata and expelled him from the USSR Ibid. S. 125, 355.. Since the exact date of the liquidation of the Odesa representative office is unknown to us (at the beginning of 1924, it still appears in the reference publication «All Odesa. 1924» as the Polish Consulate and the Polish Option Commission Вся Одесса. Адресная и справочная книга на 1924 год. Одесса: Типография «Известия», 1924. С. 106.), but taking into account the fact that the option delegation in Kyiv was closed on February 15, 1924, then we believe that the termination of the activities of the delegations in Kyiv and Odesa took place simultaneously, which is confirmed by the letter of the Polish Consul General in Kharkiv, Michat Swirskiego, dated March 17, 1924 Bruski J.J. Mi^dzy prometeizmem a Realpolitik. S. 100, 355..

By signing the convention «On the repatriation of the war's prisoners and civilian internees» CSA SBP&GU. Fund 4. List 1. File 680. P. 96-99. on September 17, 1921, the USSR and Turkey contributed to the intensification of bilateral relations. After a series of meetings, the Turkish side nevertheless agreed to open a repatriation point in Odesa. Although Odesa was rejected primarily for political reasons by the Turkish government, which insisted on Novorossiysk and Tuapse (they were rejected because they were outside the UkrSSR) Ibid. P. 59-60..

In 1922, the Turkish Repatriation Mission was established in Odesa. The mission consisted of two persons: authorized representative Lutfi-Ikri and secretary Ismail Sharaf-Eddin. Both were native Turks, the first was from Constantinople, and the second - from Batum. The Odesa chekists did not have any complaints against the mission, since both «were not noticed in the counter-revolution» and «no abnormalities were observed» in the mission's activities SSA SSU. Fund 13. List 1. File 426. Vol. 2. P. 413.. From approximately 1923 until the very closure of the mission in May-June 1925 (it was closed in connection with the opening of the consulate), the duties of the head were performed by I. Sharaf-Eddin.

In addition to opt-out and repatriation tasks, the mission took an active part in the establishment of Ukrainian-Turkish relations in the economic and cultural spheres. Thus, in 1924, the Kharkiv branch of the Commerce Russian-Eastern Chamber began to function in Ukraine. In turn, on December 18, 1924, the solemn opening of the Odesa branch of the Commerce Russian-Eastern Chamber took place in Odesa. The main task of the Odesa branch was to establish trade relations with the coastal cities of Turkey, Syria, Palestine, Greece and Egypt. At the opening, Sharaf-Eddin expressed his confidence in the strengthening of Turkish-Soviet trade relations and noted that «Turkish merchants were pleased to learn about the organization of the Chamber's branch in Odesa», wishing him success in his work on behalf of the Turkish government Открытие отделения Российско-Восточной торговой палаты // Украинский экономист (Харьков). 1924. 19 декабря (№ 67 (296). С. 1; Торговля с Востоком // Коммунист (Харьков). 1924. 19 декабря (№ 291). С. 3..

In September 1922, the Albanian Repatriation Mission began its work in Odesa (sometimes it appears in documents as a consulate, but it was not). Its leader was Columbi, who knew the Russian reality quite well, having visited the former empire as a sailor and merchant. The opening of the consular office was dictated by the presence of an Albanian colony in the city SSA SSU. Fund 13. List 1. File 426. Vol. 2. P. 413..

Columbi arrived in Odesa on September 13 and immediately caused the concern of the NKZS's local Commissioner Serhii Koziura. In his letter to the USSR Foreign Affairs' Deputy People's Commissar Volodymyr Yakovlev, he noted: «Some Columbi has arrived in Odesa, who has documents from the Albanian Ministry of Foreign Affairs that he is authorized by the Albanian government to carry out the repatriation of Albanian citizens. This Columbi is a protege of a certain Boshnian, a leader of revolutionary Albanian groups, who at one time was in Odesa and Moscow and whose services we secretly used to determine not only the national and political character of the repatriates. Now Boshnian is in Constantinople as an official representative (consul) of the Albanian government. A citizen Columbi is going to Moscow. I think I will first send it to you and you will decide what to do with it...» CSA SBP&GU. Fund 4. List 1. File 540. P. 1-1back.. Thus, the revolutionary interests of the Bolsheviks led to the approval of the Albanian Repatriation Mission in Odesa. The latter, led by Columbi, existed until about the middle of 1924.

Consulate of Germany (1923-1937)

The treaty between the Russian Socialist Federal Soviet Republic and the German state, which was signed in April 1922 in Rapallo (Italy) during the Genoa Conference, not only renewed diplomatic relations, but also laid a solid foundation for further economic and military cooperation between the countries, which were in international isolation after the end of World War I. The course of rapprochement, maturation of the allied elements relations prompted both states to study each other more «thoroughly», monitor and analyze important events and processes that took place in the partner country. Berlin's increased interest in the Soviet Union led to an increase in its diplomatic presence in the UkrSSR Бажан О. Погляд з Одеси. Суспільно-політичне та економічне життя на Півдні України у першій половині 1930-х років очима німецьких дипломатів // Південний Захід. Одесика. Історико-краєзнавчий науковий альманах. 2016. Вип. 20. С. 179..

In 1923, the German consulate was opened in Odesa. The primary task of the institution was the normalization of bilateral German-Soviet relations, where the emphasis was placed on the trade and economic sphere and the protection of German citizens and German colonists who lived in large numbers in the South of Ukraine (during the 1920s and 1930s there were 8 German national districts here). The German government periodically sent circulars to the German consuls operating in Soviet Ukraine, clearly specifying their tasks and actions regarding the implementation of bilateral Soviet-German trade relations.

The consulate's interest in the German colonists was especially intensified during socio-economic cataclysms (famines, collectivization, typhus and dysentery epidemics, persecutions, repressions, etc.). Almost every German family living in a village or city of the UkrSSR at that time needed material or food aid, and the Germans turned to the German consulate in Odesa for protection.

The consulate also looked after the religious sphere of Ukrainian Germans life, because the church existed at the expense of the small voluntary donations of its parishioners. At the same time, not only representatives of Catholic or Lutheran parishes asked for help, but also the Soviet Ukraine Orthodox clergy, who wrote letters both to the German consulates operating there and to various German nationalist organizations with a request for help. Among them was the Russian priest Dmytro Gulyi (the village of Novo- Bohdanivka, Melitopol district), who in his sermons repeatedly mentioned Hitler and Germany, which helps not only the Germans, but also the Soviet population. In addition, he urged the parishioners not to be silent and to write as many letters as possible about the famine to Germany SSA SSU. Fund 16. List 1. File 39. P. 4.. In November-December 1934, 11,123 such letters were discovered. As a result, 417,794 rubles were transferred to Ukraine from Germany during 11 months of 1934 only through the Torgsin system Ibid. P. 5..

For the German consuls in Soviet Ukraine, the question of the forced involvement of Germans in collective farms was especially acute for them, who, like the majority of Ukrainians and Poles at the time, did not want to give up the status of «individual farmer». The forced eviction of German colonists and their arrest, which began to become widespread at the beginning of 1934, was also a painful issue.

One of the most difficult areas of the German consulates was ensuring the desire of Germans to leave for Germany. Despite the fact that Germans had the right to leave the USSR at any time, in practice it was quite difficult to do so, especially for those who had Soviet citizenship Vovchuk L. Diplomatic corps of German consulates in Soviet Ukraine (1922-1938)....

However, considerable attention of the German consuls was paid to information activities, reports from which were sent to the German embassy in Moscow. The collected information related to the general political situation in the country, military aspects, the situation of heavy and light industry and agriculture, etc. The reports on the consequences of collectivization carried out by the USSR and the German consul in Odesa, Paul Roth, who, like his colleagues, highlighted the results of this terrible policy, were quite thorough Вовчук Л., Корновенко С. Голодомор 1932-1933 рр. очима іноземних дипломатів. С. 73.. He carefully monitored the activities of the Odesa region state farms and collective farms (the territory of the entire Northern Black Sea region), focused on the German colonies' life in the region Марочко В. Німецькі дипломати і голодомор 1932-1933 рр. в Україні // Київські історичні студії. 2015. № 1. С. 64..

But in addition to official affairs, German representatives continued to carry out intelligence activities, which began on the territory of Ukraine even before the beginning of the World War I. So, today it is known that the German Consul General Werner Stefani, who, according to the data of the case against him for 1925, was engaged in intelligence activities in Kyiv and Odesa, where he actively collected information on the economic development of the region, its agriculture and industry, and was also engaged in speculative operations on the purchase and sale of foreign currency, gold and various jewels34.

The personnel agent of the German General Staff was also a former officer of the intelligence service, the German consul in Odesa, Paul Roth35, who organized a wide network of informants, received all possible information about the plans, intentions, development, and problems of the USSR.

When choosing a consular post, the German MFA gave preference to «career diplomats» who had extensive experience in the diplomatic field, were fluent in foreign languages, and had deep knowledge in the fields of history, geography, statistics, political economy, and international law. All German diplomats who worked in the consulate in Odesa (see Table 1), before their appointment in this republic, had a significant track record of activities abroad.

Table 1. Diplomatic Corps of the German Consulate in Odesa (1923-1935)36

In 1936, the consulate in Odesa was reorganized into the Odesa consular department with a consular district within the Odesa region, the Autonomous Republic of Moldova and the Autonomous Republic of Crimea Білоконь С. Німецьке консульство // Особистий сайт Сергія Білоконя. URL: http://www.s-bilokin.name/Personalia/Ernst/Culture/GermanConsulat.html. SSA SSU. Fund 16. List 1. File 39. P. 48-53. More details see: VovchukL. Diplomatic corps of German consulates in Soviet Ukraine (1922-1938)... Матяш І. Іноземні представництва в Радянській Україні (1919-1991). С. 246., and at the end of 1937 it ceased to exist altogether.

Italian Consulate General (1924-1937)

On April 13, 1924, according to royal decree № 729, the Italian Kingdom consulate general was established in Odesa La Legislazione Fascista. 1922-1928 (I-VII). Volume Primo. Roma: Tipografia Della Camera Dei Deputati Ditta Carlo Colombo, 1929. P. 428; Annuario diplomatico del regno d'Italia. 1926. Roma: Tipografia Riservata Del Ministero Degli Affari Esteri, 1926. P. 532., which belonged to the 2nd class Annuario diplomatico del regno d'Italia. P. 435.. The agreement «On trade and navigation» signed between the USSR and Italy on February 7, 1924 served as the basis for the establishment of consular relations Договор о торговле и мореплавании между Союзом Советских Социалистических Республик и Италией, заключенный в гор. Риме 7 февраля 1924 года // Сборник действующих договоров, соглашений и конвенций, заключенных с иностранными государствами. Вып. I-II: действующие договоры, соглашения и конвенции, вступившие в силу до 1 января 1925 года. Москва: Издание литиздата НКИД, 1928. С. 219-229.. The Italian consulate was primarily located in the «Londonsky» hotel (Feldman Boulevard № 11, now Prymorskyi) SSA SSU. Fund 13. List 1. File 419. Vol. 1 (1). P. 7., since there was no suitable building when the consul arrived. A few months later, the consulate moved to the Lerhe building (Feldman Boulevard № 5).

The service territory of the Italian Kingdom consulate general in Odesa extended not only to the USSR's territory, but also covered the Don (Rostov-on-Don) and Kuban- Black Sea (Krasnodar) regions Ibid. P. 4.. By the royal decree of July 19, 1924 (№ 1234 (1246)), the consulate's jurisdiction was extended to the Republic of Crimea La Legislazione Fascista. 1922-1928 (I-VII). Volume Primo... P. 428; Annuario diplomatico del regno d'Italia... P. 435., and later to the Adygea (Cherkessia) autonomous region SSA SSU. Fund 13. List 1. File 419. Vol. 1 (1). P. 21..

Territorial expansion of the Odesa Consulate General led to a significant increase in the scope of the consulate's work. To optimize its work, in September 1924, Italy opened a vice-consulate in Kharkiv within the Odesa consulate Ibid. P. 22., and on November 26, 1926, a vice-consulate in Novorossiysk (on April 24, 1927, it was elevated to a consulate) La Legislazione Fascista. 1922-1928 (I-VII). Volume Primo. P. 431-432.. By the beginning of 1925, the activities of the Italian Consulate General had acquired serious dimensions. To implement all tasks of the diplomatic representation, the consulate created a network of auxiliary official and unofficial agencies in many cities of the USSR (Astrakhan, Baku, Batum, Poti, Taganrog, Irkutsk, Tambov, Feodosia, etc.), which were financially supported by the consulate general SSA SSU. Fund 13. List 1. File 419. Vol. 1 (1). P. 31..

The opening of the consulate and the arrival of the diplomat caused a stir in the local press, which reported: «After a four-year break, the activities of the Italian consulate in Odesa are resuming... On the third day, the Italian consul general, Signor Vicenzi Galanti, arrived in Odesa from Moscow, who will head the newly opened Italian consulate general in Odesa» В Одессу прибывает итальянский консул // Червоний шлях (Елисаветград). 1924. 13 апреля (№ 84); Приезд итальянского генерального консула // Моряк (Одесса. 1924. 20 апреля (№ 499)..

The key direction of the consulate's work was the deepening of economic cooperation based on the collected political and economic information, its processing and assessment. Italian diplomats did not hide the importance of their economic interests. On March 26, 1925, Ukrainian newspapers published a short note about a conversation with the Italian vice-consul in Kharkiv, R. Tubino, who noted that «in the very near future, Soviet-Italian trade will many times exceed the pre-war trade. We have now purchased 32 million poods of Donetsk coal. If it proves acceptable, it will be in huge demand in our industry. The first analyzes of Soviet coal showed that it is almost as good as English coal in terms of quality. In addition to coal, we purchase manganese, oil and other raw materials. The development of Italian-Soviet trade relations will be facilitated by the creation of a Soviet-Italian bank, as well as a mixed joint-stock trading company. In exchange for Soviet raw materials, Italy can supply the Soviet Union with equipment for large and small factories, tractors, steamships, etc Беседа с итальянским вице-консулом в Харькове // Красное знамя (Чернигов). 1925. 26 марта (№ 68). С. 1; Перспективы советско-итальянских торговых сношений. Беседа с итальянским вице-консулом в Харькове // Звезда (Екатеринослав). 1925. 26 марта (№ 802). С. 2..

On this occasion, the all-Ukrainian newspaper «Communist» on April 2, 1925 noted the words of the Italian consul (probably the Kharkiv vice-consul): «Italy is interested in Russian coal, oil, wood and kerosene. Soviet centers are interested in Italian fruits and machines, especially motor vehicles... Odesa will play a big role in future [trade] operations» Торговля с Италией // Коммунист (Харьков). 1925. 2 апреля. С. 3.. Already in 1925, Italy began to actively purchase anthracite from the Donbass, for which warehouses were opened in Odesa, Mariupol, Novorossiysk and Leningrad to supply Italian ships with coal Вывоз донецкого угля в Италию // Красный Николаев (Николаев). 1925. 27 марта (№ 1264). С. 2; Торговля с Италией // Коммунист (Харьков). 1925. 2 апреля (№ 74). С. 3..

The words of the Kharkiv vice-consul were confirmed by the general consul in Odesa, Provano del Sabbione: «The economic interests of the USSR and Italy run parallel, without crossing. Italy is interested in Soviet coal, bread and iron. All this indicates great prospects for trade between the USSR and Italy. In the future, the participation of the Italian merchant fleet in servicing the transportation of Soviet export goods will be developed. In recent years, trade operations between Italy and the USSR have increased. Italy is also interested, in addition to the above, in Soviet wool, kerosene, plywood, wood, livestock and poultry На зло Чемберлену. Итало-советская торговля // Харьковский пролетарий (Харьков). 1925. 16 июля (№ 160). С. 1.. The above explains why Italy's main interests were concentrated in Soviet Ukraine, the Caucasus and the Caspian region, Eastern Siberia, etc. Thus, the former Odesa Consul General V. Galanti from Tiflis frankly reported that «Italy is completely satisfied with the quality of Batumi petroleum products and considers it most profitable to export petroleum products from the USSR» Италия удовлетворена качеством батумских нефтепродуктов // Кочегарка (Донецк). 1925. 26 июля (№ 169). С. 2..

An important component was the guardianship of Italian subjects and Soviet citizens of Italian origin. The consulate not only performed its direct functions - granting visas, issuing passports, restoring Italian citizenship, etc., but also provided material assistance with parcels and money, took care of the problems of Catholic parishes and clergy, etc.

In order to maintain friendly relations with the USSR, the Italian Consulate General in Odesa often turned a blind eye to violations of the Italian citizens' rights and interests by the Soviet authorities. Such was the murder of the Italian sailor Aprozio in Mykolaiv. Among the representatives of the consular staff, there was a clear understanding that this was a political murder, but F. Meriano recognized this murder as accidental SSA SSU. Fund 13. List 1. File 419. Vol. 1 (2). P. 481..

During 1924-1925, the process of collecting applications from Italian citizens for compensation for damages caused by the revolutionary events of 1917-1921 was quite lively. The questionnaires were received by the consulate from the Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs by diplomatic mail, because «great attention was paid to this work». In the application-questionnaire, it was necessary to indicate the total amount of losses in rubles in gold, provide the testimony of three witnesses and, if possible, supporting documents. In general, the Italian government promised to issue 15 kopecks of compensation for every ruble of damages Ibid. Vol. 1 (1). P. 26, 31..

The head of the consulate and acting consul general Bova Skoppa developed an active activity. Like his predecessors, he actively cooperated with the Commissioner of the NKZS in Odesa, local foreign consuls, provided protection for Italian subjects, Italian sailors who went ashore while Italian ships were in the Odesa port. In addition, he performed an informational function, studying materials from printed newspapers and magazines, where special attention was paid to the work of Soviet party bodies among Italian sailors, namely their behaviour in the Odesa Interclub, their participation in various demonstrations. Clippings from periodicals were translated and sent to the Italian embassy in Moscow Ibid. P. 45, 53-54.. With his assistance, on October 26, 1926, a school for learning the Italian language was opened at the consulate for colonists from Italy More details see: Матяш І. Іноземні представництва в Радянській Україні (1919-1991)... С. 227-228., which the Chekists considered a place for the spread of fascism and through the National Security Service repeatedly tried to close it.

One of the forms of the Soviet special services' activity was propaganda and «processing» - the recruitment of Italian sailors who ended up in Soviet ports. For this, a cover («roof») was created: the Soviet Bureau of the «International Union of Seamen and Port Workers», «Interclubs». In 1923, the «International Sailor's Club» appeared in Odesa («Foreign Sailors' Club», «Odesa Central International Club named after Karl Marx», «Interclub», «Mizhpropu») club, which was used for «communist propaganda» and for recruitment of « the revolution's agents». The crews of Italian ships arriving in Odesa were the subject of «special attention» of «Interclub» agitators. Even the Italian consul in Odesa regularly appealed to the NKZS with a protest against «anti-Italian propaganda» in «Interclub» (banners with the slogans «Down with fascism», caricatures of B. Mussolini, etc.) Савченко В., Тригуб О. Секретні співробітники ДПУ з одеського «Клубу іноземних моряків». С. 121..

Consul Lamberto Tonker launched a hard work against the influence of the International Sailors' Club on Italian sailors. He came to every Italian ship arriving at the port of Odesa and informed the sailors about the ban on going ashore. In the event of a violation, strict repression was foreseen when the sailors returned to Italy. But despite all these warnings, the sailors continued to visit the Interclub. Then Tonker, with the help of the ship's captain, resorted to taking away their seafaring books from the sailors, without which they had no right to be ashore. Such actions were taken against the sailors of the «Nimbo» and «Carlo Pisacane» ships. But it did not give the desired result for Tonker.

Therefore, he unofficially, promising to solve the issue with Italian citizenship, hired Miro Avlich, who was supposed to follow the Italian sailors who visited the Interclub without permission, if possible, take photos and report it to Tonker SSA SSU. Fund 13. List 1. File 419. Vol. 1 (1). P. 119-120.. But the GPU quickly exposed him, arrested and sentenced him to prison for carrying out espionage activities for the benefit of Italy. In addition, Tonker paid considerable attention to the collection of data on economic and political life in the UkrSSR, Soviet Union Ibid. P. 122, 126., political emigrants, and Italian communists, repressions by the Soviet authorities, and persons who maintained contact with foreign missions Ibid. P. 177..

During the Holodomor of 1932-33, the Italian consulate informed the embassy and the Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about the Holodomor's horrors in the Ukrainian SSR caused by the Soviet authorities, about the eradication of separatist sentiments and the spread of distrust and hatred of the central government among the Ukrainian population, which resulted in the riots of 1936. In one from his reports, Consul Carlo Barduzzi wrote: «if the Nazis pursued the physical destruction's goal of “second race” peoples; for the Royal Army, on the contrary, «fascisation» meant the liberation of the Ukrainian people from the Soviet yoke, the restitution of the Orthodox cult and respect for the nationalist sentiments of Ukrainians» Dubrovina O. Nazionalismo, religione e cultura in Ucraina secondo la diplomazia e la propaganda fascista // Paper for Conference Ukraine and Russia 2013-2015: events and images. Modena Historical Institute. URL: https://www.comune.modena.it/istitutostorico/fdownload.php?file=ODQ0LnBkZg==.

Table 2. Diplomatic Corps of the Italian Consulate in Odesa (1924-1937)

Despite the fact that in 1933 the Soviet-Italian treaty on friendship, non-aggression and neutrality was signed, the ideological confrontation still affected the general nature of relations. The final point on the existence of the Italian Consulate General in Odesa was put after the accession of Italy to the Anti-Comintern Pact on November 6, 1937. On November 8, 1937, the Soviet government protested against unfriendly actions. Further preservation of Italy as part of the «axis» led to the collapse of diplomatic relations. On August 24, 1939, a royal decree was issued to close the Consulate of Italy in Odesa and terminate its funding, although the actual termination of its activities took place even earlier.

Consulate of Turkey (1925-1938)

At the beginning of June 1925, the Turkish government, taking into account the strategic importance of Odesa, opened its consulate general here The State Archive of Odesa Region (SAOR). Fund Р-8065. List 2. File 9282. P. 23.. On this occasion, the Soviet press reported: «A Turkish consulate was organized in Odesa. The main purpose of this consulate is the expansion of trade relations between Turkey and the USSR» В Одесі організовано Турецьке консульство // Червона Армія (Харків). 1925. 05 червня (№ 1233). С. 1..

Munif Bey, who arrived in Ukraine on June 4, 1925, was appointed the first head of the Turkish Consulate in Odesa in 1925 SAOR. Fund Р-8065. List 2. File 9282. P. 23., and Dervish Bey, who arrived in mid-May, was appointed as the vice-consul. Upon his arrival, the latter immediately made several statements about the importance of the trade relations' development between Turkey and the USSR and assured that «Turkish merchants are very interested in the possibility of economic relations with the USSR», the consulate, in turn, «will try to establish close relations with local economic organizations» Заявление турецкого консула в Одессе // Красное Запорожье (Запорожье). 1925. 19 мая (№ 112). С. 2.. His words were confirmed by Consul General Munif-bey, who in his interview with the Soviet press on June 4, 1925 noted that «the main task of the Turkish consulate's organization in Odesa is to strengthen and develop trade relations between Turkey and the USSR» Турецкое консульство в Одессе // Красное знамя (Чернигов). 1925. 07 июня (№ 127). С. 1; Турция стремится к укреплению торговой связи с СССР // Кочегарка (Артемовск). 1925. 05 июня (№ 126). С. 2.. Thus, the main task of the Consulate General was, first of all, to promote the development of trade and economic relations between Turkey and the UkrSSR, which were characterized by their intensity during the 1920s.

Ukrainian officials granted Turkish merchants the right to freely enter Ukraine at any time and conduct commercial operations at large fairs. Turkish ships could enter Ukrainian Black Sea and Azov ports without special visas of Soviet representatives in Turkey. It was through Ukrainian ports that a significant part of Turkish exports to the USSR passed. An important direction of the consulate's activity was the protection of the rights and interests of Turkish citizens who lived within the consular district.

At the initiative of the government, in 1925, the Kharkiv branch of the Commerce Russian-Eastern Chamber, which was opened in 1924, was reorganized into an independent Commerce Ukrainian-Eastern Chamber with branches in Kyiv and Odesa.

This contributed to the activation of foreign trade activities of various Ukrainian organizations. On November 25, 1925, the Odesa branch was visited by a Turkish delegation headed by Minister of Agriculture Sabri Bey and accompanied by Consul General Menif Bey and Vice Consul Dervish Bey. The minister noted the high indicators of trade cooperation and the support of the Chamber of Turkish Merchants. In response, the Odesa branch's head, Goldenberg, expressed his wish that «friendly relations with Turkish trade circles would develop to the widest possible extent, and Turkish merchants would turn to the chamber with all their needs without any hesitation» Турецкий министр земледелия Сабри-бей в Одесском отделении Восточной торговой палаты // Моряк (Одесса). 1925. 27 ноября (№ 744). С. 4; Приезд турецкого министра земледелия в Одессу // Известия (Одесса). 1925. 26 ноября (№ 1785). С. 2..

Like the majority of foreign diplomatic representatives operating in Soviet Ukraine at the time, Turkish consuls carried out information activities, highlighting the internal situation both in the consular district itself and beyond. In their reports to the Turkish government, the consuls provided information on the activities of the Odesa port, where special attention was paid to the number of foreign ships arriving; development of heavy, food industry, agricultural activity. They were also interested in the situation in the village, especially during 1932-33 SAOR. Fund Р-8065. List 2. File 9282. P. 51..

Turkish consuls were also present at various ceremonial events Резников А.Б. Совецко-турецкие и культурные научные связи в 1920-30-е гг. // Теория и практика общественного развития. История. 2014. № 1. С. 281-282.. The diplomatic corps of Turkey took an active part in establishing cultural cooperation. Thus, an important role in the Ukrainian-Turkish relations' development was played by the All-Ukrainian Scientific Association of Orientalists, founded in January 1926, whose activities focused on political-economic and historical-ethnological areas. The society had a Turkish section that dealt with Turkish issues and popularized the study of the Turkish language at courses in Kharkiv, Odesa and Kyiv Tchernikov I. Mustafa Kemal Ataturk ve Turkiye-Ukrayna Ilijkileri (1918-1938) // Ataturk Arajtirma Merkezi Dergisi (Ankara). 2003. № 19. Р. 311..

Soviet theater and art aroused the special interest of Turkish society. In August 1925, the Turkish theater reformer and film director Ertugrul Muhsin-bey visited the USSR СССР на Б.-Востоке завоевал прочные позиции. Культурное сближение // Моряк (Одесса). 1925. 14 августа (№ 699). С. 2.. During this trip, the artist probably also visited the Odesa film studio, whose work was known to the whole world. As a result, in 1926, with the assistance of ViceConsul Zekki Jamil-bey, Muhsin-bey shot the feature film «Spartacus» Піскурьов С.Є, Черницький В.Б. Репресії проти театральних діячів провінції у 30-ті роки ХХ ст. // Гілея. 2009. Вип. 24. С. 90-91. and in 1927, the film «Tamilla» at the Odesa Film Studio with funding from Turkey.

We also have information about valuable gifts of works of art to the Odesa Art Museum. To this day, the museum keeps a portrait of Leo Tolstoy (1900) by the portraitist Ivan Kazakov, which was presented by the Turkish consul Fuat Izzet-bey in 1932 Калмановская Л.Н. Выставка «Неизвестные и забытые портретисты XVIII-XIX веков» из фондов Одесского художественного музея. Каталог. Одесса: РИО областного управления по печати, 1996. С. 8..

Table 3. Diplomatic Corpsol' the Turkish Consulate in Odesa (1924-1938)

Despite the constantly emphasized friendship in relations between the USSR and Turkey, the Turkish consulate and its employees were under the close supervision of the Soviet special services, which regarded any actions of the consulate representatives as espionage. In order to be fully effective, the special services recruited representatives from both consulate employees and persons who were in contact with the consul. And after the consulates were closed, they began the process of «cleaning» them Вовчук Л. Турецьке консульство в Одесі (1922-1938 рр.). XXV Сходознавчі читання А. Кримського: Матеріали міжнародної наукової конференції, 10 листопада 2022 р. Київ: Львів - Торунь: Liha-Pres, 2022. С. 152.. At the beginning of March 1938, the Turkish consulate in Odesa ceased its activities.

Japanese Consulate (1926-1937)

On January 20, 1925, after lengthy negotiations, the Convention on the Basic Principles of Relations between the USSR and Japan (Beijing Agreement) was signed in Beijing. On February 26, 1925, representatives of Japan and the USSR exchanged ratification's letters of the Beijing Agreement. Since the entry into force of the agreement, diplomatic and consular relations have been established between the two countries Договор между СССР и Японией утвержден. Между обоими странами восстановлены нормальные дипломатические отношения // Пролетарий (Харьков). 1925. 27 февраля (№ 47). С. 1.. Throughout 1925, the process of agreeing on the opening points of Japanese consular offices in the territory of the USSR and Soviet ones in Japan took place. After long discussions, Tokyo officials received permission to create representative offices in seven cities, including Odesa Павленко С. Камімура Шін'ічі: кохання чи кар'єра?... С. 52..