The main tasks of modern immigration policies of Japan
Familiarity with the main goals of contemporary immigration policy of Japan. General characteristics of the main and effective instruments of immigration policy. Consideration of the most significant demographic changes in modern Japanese society.
| Рубрика | Международные отношения и мировая экономика |
| Вид | дипломная работа |
| Язык | английский |
| Дата добавления | 12.06.2016 |
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4.4 Acceptance of medical personnel
The program of accepting nurses and caregivers under EPA agreement began to implement for Philippines and Indonesia in 2010, and first Vietnamese nurses came to Japan in 2014. In total in the five years, 1869 candidates took part in this program (figures for the year 2013). Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare. About acceptance of foreign nurses and caregivers from Indonesia, Philippines and Vietnam. Available at http://www.mhlw.go.jp/bunya/koyou/other22/ However, the number of those, who successfully have gained the desirable job in Japan, was very low. For all the time of the existence of the program, the national qualification exam passed for both countries only 128 nurses and 241 caregivers Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare. 2013. Considering social security - white paper of Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare for year 2012. Available at: http://www.mhlw.go.jp/wp/hakusyo/kousei/12 / p. 547. The main reason given for falling exam is difficulties of candidates with the written Japanese language. In response to this hurdles, in 2012 the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare decided to extent period of stay for the candidates for one year, lengthened the time of the exam and provided text of it with furigana (characters' readings) so they have more opportunities to pass an exam Calculated according to Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare. Report upon the results of national examination for nurses candidates from foreign countries. 2014. http://www.mhlw.go.jp/file/04-Houdouhappyou-12004000-Shakaiengokyoku-Shakai-Fukushikibanka/0000041987.pdf and Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare. March 27, 2014. Report upon the results of national examination for caregivers candidates from foreign countries. http://www.mhlw.go.jp/file/04-Houdouhappyou-10805000-Iseikyoku-Kangoka/0002_2.pdf . However, it has not changed the situation and passing rates still remained low at 11.3 percent and 9.6 percent in 2012 and 2013 respectively.
These figures look even more negligible, if contrast them with 40000 nurses Japan is lacking presently, especially in the rural areas Benny Enny Teh Cheng Guan. 2014. Give foreign nurses in Japan a boost by treating accord as long-term remedy for labor shortages. The Japan Times. Feb. 02, 2014. http://www.japantimes.co.jp/opinion/2014/02/02/commentary/japan-commentary/give-foreign-nurses-in-japan-a-boost-by-treating-accord-as-long-term-remedy-for-labor-shortages/#.U4J1zfl_stI . Therefore, one may conclude, that at the current moment Japan does not consider partnership under EPA as effective and appropriate answer to labour shortage in medical and care-providing personnel. Although this pilot program is important first step towards opening doors for foreign workers in such a field, where previously only Japanese were accepted, Japan does not use the program at full strength and prolong it for already five years without any structural changes. Meanwhile, the concerns, which are expressed in the 4th Basic Plan 4th edition of Basic Plan p. 23, that this tiny amount of medical personal may threaten the local labour market, turned out to be ungrounded. On the contrary, Philippines and Indonesian nurses are going to undertake such work, which local residents are reluctant to engage in.
Moreover, a lot of reports about burdens and inconsistence in implementation of the program are published in mass media recently. For example, all applied persons are certificated nurses and caregivers in their home countries; however, during their stay in Japan they are assigned tasks that do not require professional training, such as bathing patients and table setting Japan's Immigration reform: Could this be Abe's new growth strategy? . Taking into consideration the world population aging trend and good performance of Philippines nurses in other countries, due to their competence and good knowledge of English, it is possible, that they would choose other than Japan country to work with less strict requirements, not so difficult language and brighter career opportunities.
4.5 Acceptance of nikkeijin
From the year 1990 a dramatic flow of nikkeijin began to arrive in Japan. So in 1988 within the country there was only 4159 Brazilians, but by 2004 their number boosted to 287 000 Junichi Goto, “ Latin Americans of Japanese Origin ( nikkeijin ) Working in Japan: A Survey, ” World Bank Policy Research Paper no. 4203, April 2007. P. 16 http://elibrary.worldbank.org/doi/book/10.1596/1813-9450-4203 . At that time the decision to accept foreigners of Japanese descent was perceived as compromise between industries' incentives for cheaper unskilled workforce (especially in construction, car manufactory and service spheres) and society reluctance to acquire foreigners who are completely strangers Local autonomy in the face of central domination: an examination of Japanese immigration policy p.65. It was believed that due to common ancestry nikkeijin are not totally alien, and comparing with other foreigners they can better adopt to Japanese norms and traditions and therefore would fit better into society and could assimilate. So the logic was the follow: if Japan really need unskilled immigrants, then nikkeijin would be the best choice.
At the beginning of the program the great part of nikkeijin arriving in Japan was a single male, who worked in the manufacture industry and was planning to return home to South America after raising money for several years. Generally they were paid on per hour basis and therefore their salary was smaller than of Japanese workers, as they have no health insurance and bonus payments. Many of them received their jobs through the brokers companies, which gain part of their salary. However it was still higher their wages in Brazil and as time passes the majority of them decided to stay in Japan for a longer time, applied for permanent residence or citizenship and bring their family into the country. But this situation creates different problems, as many Brazilians lack of Japanese knowledge, have completely different culture. The biggest difficulties became truancy at schools and crimes among children.
In 2008-2010 nikkeijin became vulnerable to financial crisis and great part of them lost their jobs and rest without any unemployment insurance. Therefore they were forced to quit the country and number of nikkeijin residing the country plummet. Moreover government launched special program to pay off their ticket home, under condition hey will never come back. However this program was largely criticized and those nikkeijin who used the program were allowed to return after three years if they found stable job in Japan.
So the case of nikkeijin demonstrated that Japan nowadays has no sufficient mechanism and is not ready yet to acquire a considerable amount of immigrants, provide them and their families with sufficient language, educational and social assistance, and integrate them within the society. And such situation creates obstacles for both immigrants and local communities. Moreover, country treats newcomers as a temporally workers, who might be sent back in any time, and not as rightful member of the society and future citizens, despite the desire of nikkeijin to settle down and continue to contribute to Japanese economy. Although there are some improvements recently, for example language training program for 5000 nikkeijin, these are mostly ad hoс limited measures, which are not always enough and do not provide general vision of the problem.
4.6 Trainee program
About of 142 thousands foreigners were enrolled in this program in 2011, mostly from China and Viet Nam. Many reports about human rights and working condition violations, not paying salary, passport confiscation, death and injuries from overworking were made by researches and NGO. For example, UN Commission on Human Rights connected this program with human traffic and slavery and recommended to abolish the system. However, this is almost the only program under which middle- or unskilled workers can enter Japan at list partly legal (not taking into consideration nikkeijin, who can enter the country without strict limitations on the sphere of work and consequently also often become low-skilled workers).
Table 4
After the reform of trainee program in 2010 the situation with working conditions has slightly improved, however even in 2012 there were registered 197 cases of misconduct, which main forms were abuse of human rights, violation of labour-related laws/regulations, and name lending. The large mass media coverage also obtained incident with stabbing rampage at Hiroshima oyster-processing plant, when trainee killed the president of company and employee. As a motives for the crime the hard working conditions, abuses and exploitation are named.
Despite strong critique of the controversial program, government is even planning to expand it in order to meet labour demand in construction industries during preparations to the Olympics games in 2020. So we can see that instead of implementing such consistent policies which officially permit unskilled workers to enter Japan and work under coverage of Labour Standards Act and other labour protection laws, Japan often uses “side doors” immigrant and their often illegal or partly illegal work. This situation often leads to exploitation of workers, abuse of their rights, unsustainable working conditions and even multiethnic tensions.
5.Findings
5.1 Fail to answer the challenges
To sum up previous section the major tendencies in the current Japanese immigration policy can be outlined. Through the figures we can see that the most effective policies are connected to the regulation, management and control of the foreigners as well as deportation of the undesirable visitors, while tiny progress was achieved in such fields as internationalization and liberalization of local work market, attracting more labourers in view of approaching aging and shrinking of population, human right protection of foreigners and making a country desirable place to live for a foreigner. While promoting international cooperation, joining various international organisations promoting human rights (like ILO, WHO and others) and taking part in cross-countries discussions Japan frequently is reluctant to change significantly its immigration policy and accept international frameworks of dealing with immigrants, for example, legislation prohibiting racial discrimination.
One of the most significant handicaps of the current immigration policy is the lack of coordination and general vision in the sphere of management of labour recourses. On the one hand, it is believed that unskilled and illegal workers as well as medical ones are taking employment opportunities from the local people and menace security in the country. As there is no legal way to import into Japan low-skilled workers (there is not even appropriate category among residential statuses), most large Japanese companies are moving offshore in search of cheaper labour force. Meantime in response to the increasing amount of youth graduated Japanese unwilling to engage in manual work, an increasing influx of low qualified workers often illegal or under program of trainee comes to Japan in order to meet demand for undesirable work. Frequently these people work in substandard condition without proper regulation.
On the other hand, Japan welcomes only foreign high-skilled professionals and technicians, who along with revitalizing of economy, can also create excessive rivalry at the home labour market. In other words, if Japan continues to implement this kind of policy, she may face significant misbalance of the work force, when highly educated young citizens, who are reluctant to engage in manual may experience difficulties and severe concurrence in finding appropriate job, while there would be lack of people for providing care for the elderly people and work in the agriculture sector.
According to the estimations of United Nations, only for maintaining the same population and economic growth pace as Japan has at present time, it has to invite at least 17 million immigrants up to the year 2050. And for retaining the same workforce population it needs obtain about 33 millions. So, even if Japan tries to fulfil this gap with its own “latent resources” such as women and elderly people, it is unlikely that it would be possible without immigrants. Therefore there is a need to work out an immigration policy adjusted to the needs of labour force market.
As a result, we can see that in spite of the fact that such policies' objectives as active acceptance and harmonious coexisting with foreigners, maintaining vitality of society against backdrop population decline are being proclaimed as an objectives in the 4th Basic Plan, in reality small or controversially improvements have been undertaken. The country officially still strictly limits import of the great part of immigrants (even high-skilled ones, not speaking about low-skilled ones), despite the menace of the working force dropping in the nearest years. None of the special programs can be named successful: the amount of participants of bonus program for highly skilled professionals is twice as little as planned; the passing rate of nurses and caregivers slightly surpasses 10%. However, even if the objective figures were met, still it would not reverse the trend of the labour shortage. The programs for nikkeijin and trainees are much more numerous, however there are a strong concerns of human rights protection of their participants and how newcomers fit into the Japanese society. Moreover, often both nikkeijin and trainees become source for low paid unskilled labour force are therefore, the programs also do not achieve proclaimed original goals and contradict declared policies of acceptance only high skilled professional immigrants.
Moreover, although such goals are proclaimed, the current immigration policy does not contain the detailed plan of integration of immigrants and coexistence with them. Apart tiny programs as support measures for education of migrant children, Japanese language education for nikkeijin or publishing official documents concerning immigration policy in different languages, there is vacuum in programs concerning adaptation of foreign residents to Japanese environment. Besides, there is not any strategy on how Japanese society itself, their mentality and attitude toward foreigners should change in order to accept more foreigners within the country and recognize them as a part of one united society. So one can conclude, that at the present time Japan has not sufficient infrastructure for accepting more immigrants within its borders.
As a result, one can see, that in reality Japanese immigration policy does not accomplish the goals it set behind itself. Furthermore, despite strong incentives, implemented immigration policy have almost zero effect on the nearly all challenges of shrinking population, which were described in the second chapter of this paper (rising expenditures on welfare, rising burdens on working population, need in medical personnel and slowdown of economics development). Some steps toward improvement of working and living conditions of immigrants and resolution of up to date problems were being processed, nevertheless the tiny number of immigrant can not influence the demographic structure of population and lighten the future burdens on the working age population or make good the shortfall of workers.
So we can see, that although there are some shifts towards increasing and diversification of foreign residents and Japan is proclaiming using immigration policy tools to answer aging challenges, these steps are neither enough nor successful, and do not have effect on general situation
5.2 No general vision of immigration policy strategy
The current Japanese policy has its strong and weak points, but the most serious problem in it is the lack of the long run strategic vision of the future development of the policy that goes beyond ad hoc measures. The immigration bureau does not present any document or plans for future planning in 50 or at least 10 years. However, such incentives as shrinking workforce or ageing population demand to set measures that are more decisive and put things in a longer perspective. So Japan has to choose between large amount of immigrants within its borders or economic stagnation. However, each of these variants supposes the great changes and reorganization in Japanese society and has its drawback.
The big option assumes densely populated country along with acquiring a lot of immigrants. Under such option it would be easier for Japan to maintain economic growth and position on international arena, but country will have to reconcile with the problems of a multi-ethnic society.
The smaller variant represents a country with almost a half of today's population inhabited mostly by the local residences. The decreasing of the population is often associated with the economic recession and pessimism within the country. However it does not seemed to be the most unfavourable variant, taking into consideration the modern large population density in Japan, environmental troubles and problems of the multi-ethnic policy, which are hardly avoidable as European example proofs. If Japan would be able to create a model of a society, where small relatively aged population manage to maintain welfare at the cost of high taxation, Japan would have a chance to show to the world an innovative path of development. Nevertheless, it is unlikely that under this variant country would be able to secure its leading international position as economic superpower and its authority in East Asia region may also decrease.
Looking at the current immigration policy, Japanese self-perception as an island homogeneous country and their attitude toward foreigners, it seems unrealistic that Japan would be able to accommodate in the nearest future an amount of 400 thousands immigrants a year in order to sustain the high temp economic development at that level, which she demonstrated in the middle of the previous century. On the other hand, the lately implemented policies of vitalizing Japanese economics and sustain growth of GDP (which receive name of Abenomics) is unlikely to be effective in long run perspective in the situation of declining population without support of increasing immigration.
Such goals of Japanese immigration policy as “smooth acceptance of foreign nationals vitalizing Japanese society” contribute to variant of “Big Japan”, however tiny number of foreign residence suppose the opposite variant. Therefore we can see that Japan implements rather controversial and ambiguous immigration policy, which hampers country to develop under a certain deliberately chosen strategy.
As a result, one can see that Japanese government has no consensus yet, should country develop further according to the variant of “Big Japan” or “Small Japan”, in other words, should it use immigration policy for answering aging and shrinking population policies or not. However, it is better to make decision in advance or in other words as soon as possible in order to avoid shock and secure the smooth transition.
5.3 Change in social consensus
The reluctance of Japan to respond on demographic challenges and construct effective program for accepting necessary workforce from abroad could be explained by several, mainly cultural, reasons. Many researchers point out the Japanes perception of itself as homogeneous country and discourse of homogeneity as the strongest constrain. However in course of time the situation is changing. In the current research as well the significant changes were shown.
Although current policies are not sufficient to answer challenges of aging and shrinking population, the progress is also observable. The steadily increasing number of foreign residents, facilitation of entrance procedures and visas regimes for some categories of foreigners and especially for high-skilled ones, rearrangement of the trainee program are the great leap forward the globalization of the country and the extension of the international connections with other countries. Nevertheless, such problems like strong nationalistic feelings and lack of integration of foreigners into Japanese society, approaching lack of workforce (especially in the sphere of the care for the elderly persons) and others still remain unsolved. Therefore, the inconsistences and ambiguity in the implementation of immigration policy may signify the changes in public conscience toward acceptance more immigrants and move away from homogeneous discourse. The undertaken public opinion polls also show changes in the Japanese society. So in the year 2004 only about 15% of respondents were in favor for accepting more foreign workers in case of labour shortage. However in similar poll in 2014 their number has risen up to 37%.
Apparently, Japan will not be able to become multiethnic country of immigrants like USA in the nearest future. However it can correct its policy and make it more efficient and realistic. Therefore, there is need in further public debates to reach new social consensus to what extent Japan should be opened to internationalization and immigrants. Guided by their results, the new immigration policy, which satisfy the requirements of demographic situation and social needs, could be constructed.
This paper has shown that pursuing the current immigration policy, Japanese government does not take the full responsibility for the immediate economic and social challenges. Nor she completely meets the objectives which were set in the 4th Basic Plan for Immigration Control. So I have shown that although Japan is proclaiming, that it is using immigration policy mechanism as a tool for solving problems of shrinking and aging population, in reality, these programs have almost no effect on the demographic situation.
Moreover, in the face of the upcoming drastic aging and shrinking of the population actions that are more consistent are expected from the government. However, current policy does not demonstrate long run vision of these problems. Thus the sooner authorities choose one of the development strategies - the strategy of the big country with large population and a great share of immigrants or of the small variant with almost only native population - the smother and more fruitful would be the future immigration policy and more prosperous life of future generations.
In other words unless new consensus on the issue on homogeneity and multi-ethnicity would be reached and Japan choose which way it should develop further, immigration policy could not be efficient and solve the upcoming problems. Thereby my work explains and emphasizes the importance of public debates and more mass media coverage of the issues of attracting more immigrants in connection with problem of shrinking and aging population to the successful and efficient implementation of immigration policy.
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Appendix 1
Table 5. Foreign population by country
Appendix 2
Table 6. Changes in the number of registered foreign nationals by status of residence
Appendix 3
Table 7. The outline of the major differences between the old and new trainee and internship programs.
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