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фЕДЕРАЛЬНОЕ ГОСУДАРСТвЕННОЕ бюджетное ОБРАЗОВАТЕЛЬНОЕ УЧРЕЖДЕНИЕ

ВЫСШЕГО ПРОФЕССИОНАЛЬНОГО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ

«Санкт-Петербургский государственный университет»

Диссертация

на соискание степени магистра

по основной образовательной программе высшего образования

по направлению 040100 «Социология»

профиль «Европейские общества» / MA «Studies in European Societies»

Discourses on Russian food embargo 2014 to the European countries in the Russian and European mass media

Самокрутова Анна Валерьевна

Научный руководитель /Scientific supervisor:

кандидат политических наук

доцент Белокурова Е.В.

Dr. Belokurova E.V.

Рецензент /Reviewer

доктор философии по социальным наукам, кандидат политических наук

Рощин Е. Н.

Санкт-Петербург 2017

Introduction

In the recent decades, a surge of interest to the topic of food embargo has emerged. Various aspects of the phenomenon have been considered a priority by politicians and policy-makers, scientists, journalists and many others. One of the essential parts of the research into food embargo construction is the inquiry into how it is constructed in different mass media. Each media has its own way of construction discourses on food embargo. They define what mechanisms are applied for construction of discourses, who can be presented as actors in those discourses and what topics should be highlighted. All those aspects are important for understanding of the current evaluation of the EU-Russia relations. Therefore, the purpose of the research is to study those mechanisms of discourse construction which shape the understanding of food embargo.

The current construction of discourses is highly defined by mass media, who Moreover, media are gradually becoming the major source of information in a society, and, thus, increase their potential of influencing or even shaping people's perceptions of reality. All these influences are described by media theories, which help to identify and analyze the mechanisms of the construction of discourses on different phenomena. In my research, I will consider food embargo as such a phenomenon, discourses on which could be constructed through such mechanisms as suppression of information, falsification of information and construction of myths, over- or underestimation, priming and use of language games.

Media theory findings demonstrate a conclusive evidence of the media influence. It is significant to know what effects people's attitudes and believes. Though, the question about the extent to which media influence people remains the subject of debate. There are three approaches to the relations between audience and media, that have been presented by Jakovlev in his “Basics of communication theory”: theories of mass society or media oriented theories, theories of active audience or human oriented theories, and theories of limited influence of media Яковлев И.П. Основы теории коммуникаций. 2001, с. 196-206 [Jakovlev I. Basics of communication theory. 2001, p. 196-206].

Food embargo came to the foreground of media discourse in the recent years. In my research, I am going to look through mass media in Russia, Germany, UK and Estonia to find similarities and differences in discourses on food embargo. For my analysis, I have selected the EU member states with the biggest, medium and minimal amount of food export to Russia, as I have a hypothesis, that the amount of food export could influence on the frequency of discussion, on the selection of topics, on the mechanisms of the information presentation. Each country has its own way of defining what constitutes economic sanctions, who violates international rules and what consequences it has. For the background of the study I will also find out general characteristics and history of sanction.

Topicality/

This research can be of interest since it studies food embargo through sociological perspective. There have been pieces of research done by political scientists on sanctions and sanction policy, but I have not found any study of the current food embargo 2014. Moreover, my research present analysis of construction of discourses on food embargo through implementation of media studies. The majority of research in the area of media studies focuses on how media influence people believes, but in this paper another dimension is considered. There are no studies on how discourses on food embargo or on other economic sanctions are constructed by mass media. There is also lack of works that study competition of various discourses in media.

Theoretical frames/

Theoretical frames of the research draw upon two major sources. First is the theory of social constructionism by P. Berger and T. Luckmann which presupposes that people rationalize their experience, create assumptions about reality, produce, transform and routinize concepts, and share models of social worlds through language. Language is an important element of construction of discourses. In my research, it would help me to define categories and mechanisms of construction discourses on food embargo. This theoretical approach is combined with media theories, that will help to identify and analyze the mechanisms of the discourse construction of food embargo. Among theories that are used in my research are spiral of silence theory by Noelle-Neumann; theory developed by McCombs and Shaw; Jones' and Wolfe's mechanisms

How discourses on Russian food embargo 2014 are constructed in mass media of Russia and EU countries (on the cases of Germany, UK and Estonia).

Objectives

1. To integrate sociological theories of media analysis into a framework of constructivist analysis in media discourses;

2. To inquire into historical and legal overview of sanctions definition;

3. Using discourse analysis of the media, to identify which mechanisms are used to construct food embargo in media of selected countries;

4. To investigate what are the dominant and background-discourses of food embargo in media and what groups of actors presents discourses in media;

5. To inquire into how discourses on food embargo are interconnected with other discourses in media;

6. To find out the factors influencing the construction of discourses of food embargo in media.

Chapter outline

The paper consists of two chapters preceded with the Introduction and followed by the Conclusion and list of references. The first chapter covers a theoretical framework of the study, showing how food embargo can be considered within the social constructivist theory and theories of media. As a result, an integrative model of considering constriction of discourses of food embargo in media is outlined. Further, the methodological framework of the current research is highlighted.

The second chapter describes the process of selection of case for study and methods of data analysis. Then, each case is characterized through the cultural, social, historical and legal aspects considering sanctions. Moreover, the working definitions of sanctions and food embargo, which based on the legal background, are presented. The chapter presents main findings of this study, concentrating on the analysis of the empirical data. The result of the analysis is divided into three major themes connected with the structure of the media discourse in Russian and EU countries' media, mechanisms of construction of food embargo in mass media, and interaction of discourses on food embargo that are evident in media.

Chapter 1. Integration of social theories to study construction of discourses on food embargo in mass media

embargo european russian food

In this chapter I depict the literature review and major theoretical and methodological framework of the current research. The chapter begins with introduction into sociological theories in regard with social constructivist theory. Onwards, discourse analysis as the methodological basis of the empirical study is introduced. Further, the role of media theory in the construction of food embargo is examined and the possible mechanisms of social construction of the food embargo are presented.

1. Social constructivism and discourse analysis

Social constructivism has become an influential and widely used theoretical framework. For the current research, I am going to use theoretical basis described by Peter Berger and Thomas Luckmann in “The social construction of reality” (1966). Applying the social constructivist paradigm and language, as a mechanism of construction, in relation to sanctions and food embargo will help me to understand how different mass media construct Russian food embargo 2014.

The idea that social reality is a result of human interaction and agreement is represented in such sociological and philosophical approaches as phenomenology, symbolic interactionism and constructivism. Peter L. Berger and Thomas Luckmann introduced social constructionism as a theory of knowledge that examines the development of constructed understanding of the world that form the basis for shared meanings. The theory explains how people rationalize their experience, create assumptions about reality, produce, transform and routinize concepts, and share models of social worlds through language.

For the purpose of the research, I am going to look closer to the role of language in the construction of social reality. For Berger and Luckmann language plays a significant role in the analysis of integration of everyday reality as “language is capable of transcending the reality of everyday life altogether. It can refer to experiences pertaining to finite provinces of meaning, and it can span discrete spheres of reality”. Language is assumed to be the key mechanism of social interaction and mean of understanding by members one society. Berger and Luckmann argued “language is capable not only of constructing symbols that are highly abstracted from everyday experience, but also of 'bringing back' these symbols and presenting them as objectively real elements in everyday life. In this manner, symbolism and symbolic language become essential constituents of the reality of everyday life and of the common-sense apprehension of this reality”. According to the authors, language can typify experience, introducing terms and categories that have meaning not only for the one applying them but for everyone in the same society.

Berger and Luckmann argued that “a sign [has the] explicit intention to serve as an index of subjective meanings … Language is capable of becoming the objective repository of vast accumulations of meaning and experience, which it can then preserve in time and transmit to following generations… Language also typifies experiences, allowing me to subsume them under broad categories in terms of which they have meaning not only to me but also to my fellowmen” Ibid. p. 194. Thus, language is an important element of construction of discourses. In my research, that would help me to define categories and mechanisms of construction discourses on food embargo.

“The Social Construction of Reality” has become a cornerstone in the framework of social constructivism and fostered a significant development of its ideas in the methodology of social sciences. For example, Spector and Kitsuse introduced social constructivism into the lexicon of social problems theory in the early 1970s, and according to their study, an act of behavior becomes a social problem through a process of successful claims-making by social movements or groups that can define a problem and give particular kinds of social response. This definition can be used to trace how an issue transforms into a discourse, constracted by mass media. Spector and Kitsuse propose four basic components of social problems construction: (1) groups define a condition as troublesome or offensive; (2) officials with responsibility for the condition react to the claims; (3) groups counter the official response; (4) groups develop alternative definitions of the condition and institutions for addressing it. Those components of problem construction can be also seen as mechanism of discourse construction in the following interpretation: (1) an issue is defined as worth of discussion; (2) that there is a reaction to the issue; (3) counter arguments are produced; (4) final construction of discourse is emerged.

So, social constructivism based on the book «The Social Construction of Reality» Berger and Luckmann provided me with an effective methodological tool for the studies of the mechanisms of discourse construction. The main proposition of the book is that social reality is said to be constructed. The authors claim that the social construction of reality is a changeable and flexible process of interaction between different parts of the society that can potentially lead to the struggle over particular meanings and interpretations. Thus, discussions on food embargo in media represent nowadays a perfect example of how various social and political actors are engaged in the process of discourse construction

Moreover, the ideas outlined in “The social construction of reality” serve in the development of methodology of social sciences and discourse-analysis. Discourse analysis belongs to a broader theoretical framework of social constructionism (or social constructivism) that combines different multidisciplinary approaches. The presented study uses discourse analysis as the primary method of data analysis.

Discourse analysis is a qualitative method that has a key to understanding of “language” and “the subject”. It is based on ontological and epistemological premises, that help to define the role of language in the social construction of the world. It provides us with theoretical models and methodological guidelines for the approach to the research field as well as with certain techniques for analysis. It is important to stress that discourse analysis applies critical approach for exploring products of ways of categorizing the world and not for seeking the objective truth. Discourse analytical approaches see the access to reality through language, that creates representation of reality through certain products of discourse and ascribes meanings to subjects. Moreover, the ways in which the world is understood and represented are historically and culturally specified. Therefore, discourse can be different and can change over time. It is a product of social world and maintains specific social patterns.

Discourse analysis is not a single approach, but a variety of interdisciplinary approaches that can be used to explore many different social domains. There are different perspectives offering their own description of “discourse” and “discourse analysis”. To construct a coherent framework for my research the definition proposed by Michel Foucault is used since it allows to explore the extra-linguistic characteristics of text, especially power relations. Foucault considers discourses “as historically situated `real' social practices, not representing external objects but constituting them” Keller R. The sociology of knowledge approach to Discourse. 2011. p. 46. This concept is good to match with the look at concrete data - written texts, articles and discussions, thereby it will help to analyze a background of how discourses are constructed and how they structure knowledge.

However, Foucault techniques of discourse analysis focus more on historical aspects of concept formations, therefore I am going to use Reiner Keller's sociology of knowledge approach (SKAD, Wissenssoziologische Diskursanalyse) as this approach presents a methodological toolbox for research on discourse, that links the concepts of Foucault with Berger and Luckmann's theory of the social construction of reality. Keller presents a clear practical guide of how to conduct discourse analysis, which seems to be most appropriate for my empirical study.

SCAD sees discourse as something “concrete and material” Ibid, p. 48 that appears as speech, text, visual image etc. SCAD provides an opportunity to study social actors, as they are those who create texts, images, discussions following social instructions. Additionally, it helps to provide a deeper understanding of mechanism of social construction of phenomena and power relation within the media discourses. SCAD is applied to find out how meaning structures are constructed, objectivized, legitimized and interpreted and what are the effects of this processes. The method is working in various dimensions of reconstruction of the processes: “sense making as well as subject formation, ways of acting, institutional/structural contexts, and social consequences” Ibid, p. 49.

Therefore, I conducted my analysis with the help of a set of analytical units and concepts granted by Keller.

Those units are: “(1) Deutungsmuster (interpretative schemes, frames), (2) classifications, (3) phenomenal structure and (4) narrative structure (plots)” Keller R. Analysing Discourse. An Approach from the Sociology of Knowledge. 2005. The concept of Deutungsmuster is refers to meaning production through configuration of signs, symbols, sentences. Discourses are considered as models of production and circulation of frames.

Classification as an analytical unit, in its turn, considers all kinds of classification which are present in each discourse. It deconstructs textual units and rearrange them in form of a table. The concept of “phenomenon structure” is used for creation typified concepts and relations through “coding”, “writing memos” etc. Narrative structure is a storyline which explains who is doing what and why. It organizes the genealogy of discourses. Based on this methodology, it is possible to identify various aspects of the way food embargo is constructed in media.

Due to extensive volume of data, the analysis of selected articles was conducted with the help of methodology proposed by Barney Glaser and Anselm Strauss in “Strategies for Qualitative Research” (1967).

This theory illustrates the technical aspect of analysis of qualitative data, suggesting the use of coding to identify the major elements of the narratives presented in the data.

2. The role of media in construction of discourses

Current discourses in the contemporary world are mainly constructed by the mass media, so to answer the research question, the media theories are needed.

2.1 Media theories

Current global political field is very complex. Mass media add more complexity by publishing information about state's policy, forming public opinion. “Increases in coverage of problems and issues may contribute to a positive feedback cycle resulting in relatively large adjustments to the system (i.e., policy change). On the other hand, decreases or lack of media attention to problems and issues may be a factor in negative feedback, small adjustments, and incremental policy change or no change at all”. Mass media is considered to be a major mediator between policy-makers and civil society. Mass media reveal biased issues going on around sanction policy and claims in a public sphere. It strongly influences public discourse by selecting and promoting certain topics as worth discussing, stimulating the public's emotional response, awareness and concern. Moreover, mass media not just represent social reality but rather make it, creating public perception of reality. Though, the question about the extent to which media influence people remains one of the most topical.

There are three approaches to the relations between audience and media, that have been presented by Jakovlev in his “Basics of communication theory”: theories of mass society or media oriented theories, theories of active audience or human oriented theories, and theories of limited influence of media.

Among the media-oriented theories are a theory of mass society, where the ideas of preventing the expression of individual interest are introduced. This theory appeared in the second half of the 19th century during the period of industrialization and urbanization. A propaganda model proposed by Edward S. Herman and Noam Chromsky also belongs to the media oriented theories. The authors see mass media as mean of manipulation public consciousness. The model focuses on the inequality of wealth and power and how money and power can select the information that is fit to be printed in the news. Jakovlev describes several theories that belong to the framework of mass society. For example, magic-bullet theory (also known as the hypodermic-syringe model, transmission-belt model, or hypodermic needle model), compares the effect from mass media with a bullet -- media message penetrate brain and inevitably transform person's thoughts and emotions. In addition, Harold Lasswell's study of scientific propaganda, that claims the more unstable and restless people's life is the more effective propaganda will be, and Walter Lippmann's theory of public opinion formation, in which Lipmann doubted people's ability to learn enough from media to help them understand it all, are also mentioned by Jakovlev in his overview of media-oriented theories.

On top of that, I would like to mention George Gerbner's and Gross' cultivation theory, that suggests the more time people spend, "living" in the world of television, the more likely their image of social reality will correspond to the one on TV. Marchall McLuchan in his book “The Gutenberg Galaxy: The Making of Typographic Man” (1962) proposed medium theory, in which not only media should be observed, but also the ways it reshapes social life. He analyzes the effects of mass media on the European culture and human consciousness. There is also Merton and Lazarsfeld's narcotizing dysfunction model that also correspond with media oriented theories. The term “narcotizing dysfunction” was outlined in their article “Mass Communication, Popular Taste and Organized Social Action” (1948). Paul F. Lazarsfeld, and Robert K. Merton concluded that media inundates people on a particular issue that they become apathetic to it and substituting knowledge for action. Theory of social responsibility of media also belongs to the list of theories of mass society and propose that the press should be discussed in public, and media should accept any obligation from public interference or professional self-regulations, and many others.

These are also theories that consider media to have significant influence on people's behavior, emotions, thoughts and believes. According to those theories, mass media shape ideas making people follow them, dictate people what to think about reality, form the most topical issues for discussion. Some of them were doubted, for instance, magic-bullet model was rejected by Harold Lasswell, who thought that the theory was simple, and mass media could not use it as it would not prepare people for careful acceptance of ideas and actions. On the other hand, some theories remain very credible in contemporary media analysis, for example, cultivation theory introduced by Gerbner and Cross, that focuses on the influence of television on the perception, interpretation and organization of social reality in long term perspective. According to the theory, TV forms people's behavior, though the effect of the TV is still limited, it has cumulative power, more TV is viewed more, and it influences on the person.

Public arenas model proposed by Hilgartner and Bosk, that emphasizes competition and selection in the media and other arenas of public discourse, also describes influence of mass media. “The model stresses the “arenas” where social problem definition evolve, examining the effect of those arenas on both the evolution of social problems and the actors who make claims about them”. The authors see social problem as some condition or situation that is labeled as problem in the arenas of public discourse. They focus on the competition of social problems for the public attention, as limited resource. Hilgartner and Bosk gives 6 main elements of their model: a dynamic process of competition of claim-makers; arenas as “environments” for problems competitions; a limited capacity of arenas; the “principle of selection” of the problem formulations; patterns of interactions among arenas; and networks of operatives for promoting and controlling problems. All in all, this model, that also belong to the media-oriented theories, describes how problems and operatives (communities of specialists in each of society's macro categories of social problems, such as crime, economy, foreign policy and many others, and those who specialized in arena-based techniques, such as reporting, television production, policy research and others) compete for public attention and resources. Teamwise, the model examines the ways social problems definitions are selected and how operatives adjust their claims to the requirements of public arenas.

Ideas of mass society dominated in 1930s-1940s, and found their acknowledgment in in social-political life, when mass media was a powerful tool for propaganda. However, media oriented theories were questioned by those who studied effects of mass media influence. According to Jakovlev, one of them was Paul Lazarsfeld, who have found out ways of people's resistance to power of mass media. His ideas were ground for the concept of mass media limited effects. Lazarsfeld created two-step flow of communication model, according to which people and their opinions are mainly influenced by opinion leaders - those with an expert view in different questions. Among theories of limited influence of media mentioned by Jakovlev is diffusion of innovations theory proposed by Everett Rogers, that revealed a necessity of preparation of agents of influence for the innovation distribution, and Klapper's selective exposure model, where the audience were not passive target of mass media influence and media held a role of amplifier of existing behavior and convictions.

Meanwhile, human-oriented approaches see audience as an active player with the opportunity of choice of information to satisfy personal interests and needs. For instant, in 1974 uses and gratifications theory was proposed by Katz, Blumer and Gurevitch, who sought for the answers on why and how people actively seek out specific media to satisfy specific needs. Media system dependence theory developed by Sandra Ball-Rokeach and Melvin Defluer showed an interdependence of mass media and satisfaction of people's needs. The better media meets people's needs, the more important it will be in a person's life, and therefore the more effects media will have on a person, that is especially seen in situations of crises.

In total, theories listed above are very popular among researches in media studies. They give a big variety of interpretations, that can help to understand how mass media involved in public opinion formation. In my research, I am going to use media theories, which I am going to describe further.

2.2 Mechanisms of discourse construction in media theory

Noelle-Neumann propose spiral of silence theory, that states that there is unequal access to and representation of people and groups in public debates. Public opinion is viewed as opinion of the majority, while the minority opinion is kept in silence. In the end, we have very powerful domination opinion and week opposition voices. This theory proposes one of mechanisms of discourse construction: application of “the spiral of silence”.

Another mechanism could be found in agenda-setting theory developed McCombs and Shaw, who considered mass media strongly influence public discourse by selecting and promoting certain topics as worth discussing, stimulating the public's emotional response, awareness and concern, will be also used in the current research. Authors state “the media are the major primary sources of national political information: for most, mass media provide the best - and only - easily available approximation of ever-changing political realities”. Through mechanisms of agenda-setting, media not just represent social reality but make it. Moreover, McCcombs and Shaw ague, that mass media are very successful in matching their messages to audience interests. Following this idea, Wolfe, Jones, Baumgertner considered that media not only tell people what to think about, but influence the way people think and act Wolfe M., Jones B.D., Baumgertner F.R. A failure to communicate: agenda setting in media and policy studies. 2013. p. 178. Moreover, Jones and Wolfe considered the role of media in making framework through three mechanisms. Firstly, media coverage weights information and help focus attention. Secondly, media can help to form certain character of the subsequent policy action. Thirdly, media attention mediates the speed of the policy process, though it does not have the direct power to influence the outcome. Furthermore, Wolfe, Jones and Baumgertner claim that framing technique of the media can be used in case of policy change. By framing events, those who use media as a tool create an opportunity to introduce or strengthen new frames and definitions, especially in case of dramatic events and events that need interpretation.

James W. Dearing and Everett Rogers distinguish 3 types of agenda setting: public agenda setting, media agenda setting and policy agenda setting. Public agenda setting has its main dependent variable in set of issues on the public agenda. In media agenda setting, the importance of the issue on the mass media agenda is treated as a dependent variable. And for policy agenda setting, dependent variable is elite policy makers' agendas, partly as a response to public agenda and media agenda. All three have a dense network of mutual interrelationships. Dearing and Rogers also described differences between agenda-setting and agenda building. The first one refers to the process through which mass media deliver its relative importance of messages to the public. While in case of agenda-building both media agenda and public agenda influence policy agenda.

There is another concept that is related to agenda-setting - framing. The theory was firstly proposed by Erving Goffman under the title of frame analysis in his book Frame Analysis: An Essay on the Organization of Experience (1974). According to Goffman, frame is a cultural rooted interpretation schema that helps people to identify social situations they are involved in. Both, agenda-setting and framing theory, concentrates on how media draw people's attention on certain issues. But framing goes a little bit deeper in a way in which news are presented. “A framing effect is said to occur when, in the process of describing an issue of event, a speaker's emphasis on subset of potentially relevant considerations causes individuals to focus on those considerations when constructing their opinions”. The framing theory bases on the statement that media focus attention on certain events and facts and then use certain rhetoric and claims, choosing certain presentation styles and emphasizing certain values and emotions. Framing focuses on how the story is presented, how these are characterized to influence the public understanding. The effects of framing are based on applicabilityto which extent the issues fall under the previous experiences and their classifications. Thus, mass media promote specific problem definitions, casual interpretations, moral evaluations, blame assignment and treatment recommendations. While agenda-setting focuses on story selection, on what issues are promoted by mass media, its effects are based on accessibilityhow often and recently issues occur in public debate.

Both concepts are focused in sensational issues of low complexity and high possibility for dramatic events. News outlets should be reliable, well-reputed, while they enjoy great influence upon public opinion, and policy making from different media increase the integrated effect. They use active conflict frames. The provision of general context for the audience is insufficient. The logic of agenda-setting and framing by contemporary mass media is also in lacking technical proficiency of the reporters in the described matters. Moreover, some policy domains are very long-term, while mass media striving for timeliness and novelty tend to distract from them soon.

Means of agenda-setting and framing include bringing and typifying examples, personification as storytelling strategy, referring to statistics, interplay with values and norms, search for or construction of intriguing plots, construction of villains and victims, usage of binary oppositions, focus on threats, catastrophes and fears, choice of conflict perspectives, usage of appropriate language-games, like motifs, idioms, styles and many others. Fairhurst and Sarr described the following framing techniques:

a) Metaphor: To give an idea or program a new meaning by comparing it to something else;

b) Stories (myths and legends): To frame a subject by anecdote in a vivid and memorable way;

c) Traditions (rites, rituals and ceremonies): To pattern and define an organization at regular time increments to confirm and reproduce organizational values;

d) Slogans, jargon and catchphrases: To frame a subject in a memorable and familiar fashion;

e) Artifacts: To illuminate corporate values through physical vestiges (sometimes in a way language cannot);

f) Contrast: To describe a subject in terms of what it is not;

g) Spin: to talk about a concept so as to give it a positive or negative connotation.

One of the instruments to frame certain issues is proposed by Peter Ibbara and John Kitsuse and called language games (vernacular). “For Ibbara and Kitsuse, the social problems language game is coherent organization of claims-making activities comprising the vernacular or idiomatic resources through which members of the society at large initiate, define, promote, and regulate “the social problems process”. Kitsuse and Ibbara offer comprehensive framework for analyzing social problems by concentrating on motifs - recurrent figures of speech and themes that highlight of summarize a central element of and issue (set of issues) that often include morally permeated phrases and metaphors (e.g. crisis, catastrophe, abuse, scandal, threat). The authors emphasize that there are almost always moral judgments in construction of social problems. And investigation of motifs can reveal who are decision-makers and who are recipients of the media messages. Idioms are also widely used by mass media in order to legitimize actors' decisions, present arguments, to stimulate certain emotions, to refer to shared symbols and connotations. Rhetorical idioms are morally embedded ways in which the problematic status of a category is elaborated (moral reasoning, referring to emotions, shared symbols and norms).

There are different types of idioms that are often employed by mass media for reaching certain goals. Rhetoric of loss is used in case when some valuable object or state is running the risk of losing value and needs protecting (e.g. nature, environment, innocence, purity, morality, and legacy). Applying rhetoric of entitlement claim-makers are stating that everyone should have freedom of self-expression, equal access to resources including public institutions and political participation. They see major threat in discrimination by gender, class, age, race, ethnicity, disability and others. Rhetoric of endangerment focus on conditions that threaten safety and health. Major threats here could be diseases, infections, epidemic, pathology. Rhetoric of unreason focuses on international misrepresentation and deceit and see threats in brainwashing, manipulation because of lack of education, incompetence or just naivety of the victims. Rhetoric of calamity center on images of disaster of catastrophe like poverty, crime, abuse, teenage pregnancies.

On top of that, there are different styles of claim-making and issues presentation used in mass media to deliver their messages. The claim-making styles discussed by Ibbara and Kitsuse are civic style, legalistic style, scientific style, political style, comic style, theatrical style and subcultural style. Civic style claims made of outrage or moral indignation. Participants using civic style while speaking on behalf of “the people”. Impression of naturalness, spontaneity, even lack of organization is created. On the other hand, legalistic style of claim-making refers to law and justice, rationality. In scientific style claimants are proving the existence of the problem and its “objectivity” by referring to research and statistic. Political style is an official style often used by governmental bodies. The comic style is commonly found in present of sarcasm, exaggeration or irony. The style is applied to emphasize the significant of the claim and to ridicule the counterarguments. Theatrical style describes situations when claim-making is occurred through unusual, creative means like flesh mobs, interventions and others. Lastly, when diverse segments of society based of gender, class, ethnicity, sexual orientation are making their claims it is defined as a subcultural style.

This broad overview of the main concepts of Kitsuse and Ibarra's theory of social problems and language games gives a chance for understanding of mechanisms of discourse construction. The concepts introduced by both authors as well as the theoretical framework of the social constructivism in relation to study of mechanisms of discourse construction provide me with an effective tools for deep discourse analysis. Moreover, the strategies of claim-making activity mentioned above seem to be directly applicable to investigate how discourses are constructed.

2.3 Possible role of mass media in political communication and policy making

Economic sanctions are being frequently used as a tool for foreign policy making: to effect changes in the target country's policy, to change target country's regime, to impair the military potential of an important adversary and in many other cases. Moreover, sender countries do not often declare their true goals. Obfuscation can be the goal itself to achieve a destabilization of policy in a targeted country. For example, “the Soviet Union never directly said it wished to overthrow either Marshal Tito or Albanian President Enver Hoxha; the United State was equally circumspect in its public statements about Salvador Allende in Chile and Ngo Dihn Diem in Vietnam and wavered in its public rhetoric over Saddam Hussein”. On top, goals may change over time. In some cases, domestic political motives may overlap foreign policy concerns. Special interest groups could use economic sanctions to satisfy their own purposes. Furthermore, “even if sanctions are not achieving the sender's country goals, the home populace may still support them because citizens believe that sanctions are a just action”. And in their judgments people are often rely on mass media in assigning meanings to actions. Media are gradually becoming the major source of political information in a society and therefore increase their potential of influencing, or even shaping, people's perceptions of political reality and political institutions. Thus, political system grows increasingly dependent on and adjusted to the demands of mass media in their coverage of politics. Asp and Esaiasson write that “the medialization of politics can be seen as a three-stage process in which there is a development toward increasing media influence”.

For a long time the question, if mass media really influence the political process, remained peripheral because media and communication research developed separately from political science. Some researchers estimated the influence of media on political agenda as rather limited (Stefaan Walgrave1, Peter Van Aelst), as mass media tend to pay the attention to a certain issue during short period of time, which does not match slow political processes. Moreover, mass media focus on the most spectacular stories which are often the result of political process and decisions. On the other hand, some researchers claim that the influence of mass media on political agenda is significant (Maxwell E. McCombs, Donalds L. Shaw). Politicians are readers and viewers; thus, they can be effected by media. Furthermore, mass media can speed up political decision making by taking over the active role and aggressively promoting their messages.

3. Conclusion

Political changes of recent years have brought the discussions on economic sanctions, and in particular on food embargo, on agenda. And mass media use its influence to construct public opinion.

Social constructivism, media theory and analysis of discursive practice employed in media discourses can help to investigate how media construct, reinforce and challenge dominant discourses, including discourses on food embargo. Constructivist approach allows to study social-cultural differences of the selected cases and how they affect the mechanisms and content of media construction of the discourses on food embargo.

As specified earlier, this study is driven by following research question: how the discourses on food embargo have

been constructed in various media. To study the specific mechanisms of construction, elements of media theory will be used to identify the tools of agenda-setting, framing and use of language games. I am going to use such mechanisms of discourse construction as rhetoric for politicization of food embargo; styles for food embargo presentation; specific stylistic tools, framing and putting specific myths about food embargo on the agenda; agenda-setting and framing in the construction of food embargo with relation to the construction of villains and victims and the opposition between Us-Them.

Chapter 2. Structure of discourse and mechanisms of social construction of food embargo in Russian and EU countries' mass media

In this chapter, the results of empirical research are presented. The chapter is built as follows. Firstly, the selection of cased is explained and the collected data is described. Secondly, for the deeper understanding of phenomenon of Russian food embargo, I am going to review its social, cultural, historical and legal backgrounds.

Then, as a result of the discourse analysis the structures of discourses on food embargo in Russian and EU countries' mass media will be discussed and the main topics and actors that structure these discourses will be identified. Furthermore, mechanisms that construct the discourses of food embargo are going to be distinguished and, simultaneously, the characteristics of this construction will be outlined. Finally, the main discourses that compete for the right to construct the discourse of food embargo will be described. As a result, the comparison of the structure, mechanisms and myths in different countries will be conducted and general conclusions will be outlined.

1. Two-level selection of cases: (1) countries, (2) media

One mass media in Estonia, one media in Germany, one in the United Kingdom and one in Russia were chosen for the analysis. The requirements for the selection of the news sources are based on influence and popularity in each country, to study more topical views on food embargo. Therefore, news sources with the highest circulation were chosen as a source. Articles within a period from 6 August 2014 to 21 December 2016 were analyzed. I should also mention, that the issue of different languages created certain challenges, therefore the decision was made to choose those sources that have translation into English.

The countries were selected based on the export volume from the EU countries to Russia in 2013, as evaluated by the European Commission by the year before the introduction of food embargo by Russia. According to the European Commission data, Germany was the most important exporter to the Russian market with more than 35 billion Euro export value in 2013. The UK was chosen among the states with the medium export value (approximately 4,6 billion Euro). Estonia is taken from the list of the countries with the low export value (about 1,4 billion Euro).

1.1 German case

In Germany, “der Spiegel” is the fourth most popular news media after Bild (Bild.de) and Stern (Stern.de), that provides the information in German language only. And tv14, third most popular media in Germany, is a TV channel, does not provide with printed information. Following MA 2016 Pressemedian, the leading media analysis and survey on media consumer behavior in Germany, Bild's reach was nearly 12,2 million of readers per issue, Stern's - 9,8 million readers per issue, and der Spiegel - 9,3 million readers per issue. Therefore, der Spiegel was chosen for my research as the one providing information in English language.

Der Spiegel is Europe's biggest and Germany's most influential weekly magazine, published in Hamburg with a circulation of 789,062 on the 2016 Spiegel QC, IVW III/2016, inkl. e-paper . It is known for its distinctive, academic writing style and its incredible heft. Its editorial spectrum has a big range and the main focus of the reporting is on politics and society. According to data retrieved from MA Pressemedien, the most typical readers of der Spiegel are educated males, with high income. Der Spiegel provides translations of its articles at the Der Spiegel International section with all the translations made by the Der Spiegel staff.

1.2 United Kingdom case

In conformity with statistics of monthly reach of national newspapers and their websites in the United Kingdom from July 2015 to June 2016, The Daily Mail and its website dailymail.co.uk reached an average 18.4 million individuals a month through both its print and digital formats and this the highest rate among printed media. However, British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) lead all media publishers in the UK based on combined desktop and mobile page-views in the UK in 2015 Schwarz J. Top U.K. Media Publishers and Publications - Ranked for 2015. It had close to 19 billion page-views. Meanwhile, Daily Mail Group media had slightly bigger than 4 billion page-views. Thus, BBC is more appropriate for my research.

BBC distributes international 24-hour English-language news. It is the largest broadcast news gathering operation in the world and its online presence includes news website and archive. It provides news, features, analysis and debate plus audio and video content from England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland.

1.3 Estonian case

Postimees has the title of the biggest daily newspaper in Estonia. Its circulation reaches around 50 000 copies. It is published six days a week, from Monday to Saturday and provides an overview of events in Estonia as well as abroad in an operative and impartial manner. Postimees has a news portal Postimees.ee, that is translated into English and Russian languages. I should also mention that Postimees publishs its articles in 3 languages: Estonian, English and Russian. According to the expert opinion the content of articles on each language could differ according to the targeted audience within the country.

1.4 Russian case

In Russia, the popularity of media sources is calculated through Medialogy - Russian Science Citation Index, information-analytical system, which is designed for operational search for relevant bibliographic information and to assess the impact and effectiveness of research organizations, scientists, and the level of scientific journals, etc. According to the Medialogy, informational-analytical system, the most cited mass media is news agency TACC (TASS). Its citation index was 150 150,72 in 2015. TASS is the largest Russian news agency, that covers all aspects of political, economic, social and cultural life within the country and abroad. Moreover, it provides with information both in Russian and English languages.

2. Data collection process

Since the objective of this research is to trace how social construction of Russian food embargo 2014 is represented in social media, it is legitimate to analyze articles within the time interval between 6 August 2014, when “The Decree on the Application of Certain Special Economic Measures to Ensure Security of the Russian Federation” was signed, and the end of 2016, after prolongation of food embargo for one year period on 25 June 2015 and on 29 June 2016 to the end of 2017.

All the articles that contain news concerning Russian food embargo were collected. The search of articles was carried out by keywords. Articles, that were irrelevant to the topic of Russian food embargo 2013 to the European countries were delated. In total, for the German case 16 articles were found, for the UK case 43, for the Estonian case - 118, and for the Russian case - 471.