Specifics of Japan’s soft power strategy: pop-culture, cultural exchange, and nation-branding

Also, the process of nation-branding involves organising people that would present the image of the nation. Primarily, nation branding includes reconsidering the identity of the nation in a way to make it more appealing to foreign audiences. As other countries' nation-branding strategies, Japan's strategy is based on the belief in the distinctiveness of the nation and, as Fisher (2014) points out, it positions Japan as an ethnically homogeneous and unique culture. The strategy relies on a distinguishing and unique culture, style of the nation, and so-called `cultural DNA'. This approach tends to exclude minorities from the discussion and implies promoting diversity among Japan and other nation, not within Japan. Consequently, multiculturalism in Japan has been made obscure because of such an approach towards public diplomacy and cultural exchange. In this way, cultural exchange between Japan and other nations outperforms policy of multiculturalism that was supposed to deal with cultural diversity within Japan.

Otmazgin (2012), analysed the changes in Japan's soft power policy over three historical periods: Japan's imperialism and expansion, the post-war period, and modern Japan after the 1990s. The author argues that it is international affairs and changes in Japan's status in the region that influence the direction of the policy. Pop-culture policy and public diplomacy contribute to the political agenda of Japan's government and satisfy their political needs. Since the 1990s, Japan has seen culture as having potential not only in advancing its political interests but also in advancing economic growth by exporting cultural products. Therefore, the government felt free to intervene in the cultural spheres in order to manage them and make them serve the interests of the nation. However, as the author noticed, outcomes of soft power policies could not always be predicted or easily managed. In addition, one country's perseverance in trying to make culture a political tool and gain benefits from spreading cultural products can result in opposite effects. The example of it can be resentment and anti-Japan movements in South Korea and China in the post-war period. education strategy power

Post-structuralism and conceptual tools for analysis

Post-structuralism, as a school of thought, is concerned with discourses, meanings, intertextuality, and other constructions that influence power relations in the world. Poststructuralism is a recent theory that analyses how the world constructed and how these constructions influence the foreign policy agenda and decisions. As Hansen (2014) describes, the theory is based on four philosophical concepts: discourse, deconstruction, genealogy, intertextuality. The concept of discourse was borrowed from a philosopher Michel Foucault (1966), who stressed the significance of language for generating meanings and, accordingly, forming a discourse. Post-structuralists believe that social reality is continuously and reciprocally constructed by means of discourse. Also, post-structuralism views the linguistic system as a set of signs and codes, and the concept of deconstruction means that the meaning of something can only be perceived in comparison or contrast to something else, which it does not represent. De Saussure (1959) was one of the main authors whose work underpinned principles of structuralism and first to use the notion of structure in relation to linguistics and view it as a system. De Saussure (1983) assumed language to be a system, comprised of elements, values of which are dependent on and define each other. He contended that the elements of this system could be defined in relation to other elements in the system, thus making it possible to understand one element only in its relation to other elements or the structure as a whole, instead of seeing them separately.

Additionally, J. Derrida (1959), in his theory of deconstruction, claimed that language is comprised of dichotomies, which help to understand better the formation and problematization of issues in world politics. The concept of genealogy considers alternative discourses and political theories, which have been marginalized, and examines the ones, that constituted the present reality. Intertextuality states that the world consists of texts, that are related to previous texts and so on. Thus, the theory argues that world politics could be understood through intertextuality. Therefore, the concept of power can be considered too, but not through `standard' means like hard power, but also through discourse and language.

One of the influential thinkers of this school of thought is Foucault, who used the term discourse in order to explain how language produces meanings and this, in turn, creates discourses. It is suggested by post-structuralists that discourse unceasingly forms social reality. Other concepts that post-structuralism uses is linguistics as a system of signs and deconstruction, which implies that the meaning of one thing can only be understood by comparing or contrasting it to other meanings. Foucault's writings are of particular use to understanding power relations from the point of view of post-structuralists. Foucault (1982) studied the question of objectification of human beings and power-related questions. He viewed the human being as a subject put into relations of production as well as into power relations. In order to better understand subjectification, Foucault studies the concept of power relations which, as he suggests, can be explained through various forms of resistance against them. The author also emphasizes the distinction between relations of power and simple communication, which implies exchanging or spreading information via language or any other system of codes. However, creation and dissemination of meanings through language might aim at having an impact on power dimension and generating power.

While talking about the implementation of power, Foucault (1982) defines it as an exercise of `an action upon an action'. By this, the author means that power is implemented by actions on the existing or possible actions of other actors. Moreover, he mentions that such mode of action is only possible when the essential condition of freedom is in place, i.e. when subjects of power have a range of opportunities of action, behaviour, etc. at their hands. By the same token, Foucault (1982) argues that society is impossible without power relations which are grounded in it and the system of connections. For that reason, the author proposes that it would be useful to analyze institutions in a given society from the point of view of power relations. For the purposes of such examination of power relations from the institutional position, the author introduces the list of criteria. First, a system of differentiation has to be put in place due to which someone is allowed to exercise actions on the actions of others. These differentiations might be defined by status, capacity, expertise, and so on. Second, the kind of objectives should be determined which those who exercise power have as their goals. Third, we need to know by what means the power relations are implemented. It might include rules, regulations, use of weapons, etc. Fourth, the form of institutionalization needs to be known, which is an organization of the system with its own defined rules, hierarchy, self-determination, and functions. Fifth, there should be the degree of rationalization in the exercise of power, which assumes that the power should be accommodated or altered with regard to various circumstances, be it the effectiveness of the tools or amount of expenses, and so on. Taking into consideration these criteria, different forms of power relations and different kinds of institutions can appear within a society.

Another influential author in post-structuralism is Deleuze, who was also influenced and inspired by Foucault writings and ideas. In this way, Deleuze and Guattari (1987) in their book `A Thousand Plateaus: Capitalism and Schizophrenia' elaborated on the concept of assemblage, which would also be useful for the analysis of power attempted in this paper. The authors introduce the concept of assemblage which they define as a kind of an abstract apparatus that consists of multiple lines, segments, etc., and can be understood through other assemblages. In other words, the assemblage consists of the multiplicity of different elements which function together in one form. Assemblages, according to the authors, are essential for regimes, organizations, and relationships between them. Assemblages make possible for the integrity of different structures and make them arranged and not chaotic. The elements within an assemblage are not fixed and are able to act interchangeably. Deleuze and Guattari's (1987) theory of assemblage can be used in the analysis of social entities, organizations, and institutions as an assemblage of different elements interacting within a complex structure.

The author that would be of particular importance to this analysis is Adorno (2004) and his writings on the culture industry. The author uses the term `culture industry' that denounces the works of art and other products of culture are designed according to the needs of masses, dictate the patterns of consumption and production of which is planned and systematized. Adorno (2004) views culture as becoming more consolidated and united than before. The products of culture, such as movies, magazines, radio, etc., present a unified system. Culture has stopped being merely a contemplation or a representation of the current.

On the contrary, it has developed to become an industry which complies with the same rules of production as other industries and producers do in the capitalist economy. Works of art and other cultural products have designed ways of disseminating and propagating actual commodities. In the culture industry, consumers, which are masses, are only objects, whose consciousness and unconsciousness get manipulated by the mass media. Moreover, one of the foundations of the products of the cultural industry is their values and generation of profit, not that of content creation. In this way, culture gets standardized and spread by specifically designed techniques. Thus, the culture industry represents how capitalism can get through society by producing cultural products that are easy to consume and satisfy consumer desires. For Adorno (2004), the mass media and pop culture are means of political and economic power to exercise control over the society by offering false freedom of choice.

1. Pop-culture and Cultural Exchange

1.1 Pop-culture diplomacy

Japanese government puts many efforts into its soft power strategy trying to promote its image abroad. Japan's government created specialised organisations and ministries to manage cultural policy. Among the most influential organisations are the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MOFA), the Japan Foundation, the Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry (METI), the Agency for Cultural Affairs (a special body that works as a part the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology), the Cabinet of Japan itself, and some other organisations. Nonetheless, these agencies and organisations tend to have similar or coinciding duties and responsibilities. On the official website of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan the soft power strategy is divided in several spheres: PR abroad, cultural exchange, People to People exchange, cooperation with international organisations, Cultural Grant assistance, Local partnership cooperation. All of these are in turn subdivided into more particular actions and reforms. The paper will consider the previous division of the soft power strategy as the main priorities of Japan's government in promoting its image abroad.

According to the Global Ranking of Soft Power Index (2019), Japan takes the 8th place in the list, having shifted from fifth place in 2018. Soft Power Survey 2018/19 conducted by the Monocle Magazine placed Japan in the third place in its ranking (Monocle Magazine 2018). Mentioned above rankings illustrate that Japan is quite successful at conducting its soft power policy and promoting its attractive image. Commonly, it is believed that pop-culture is one of the main diplomatic tools in the set of Japan's soft power policy. However, pop-culture diplomacy is only one part of a broader cultural exchange set of policies. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs claims pop-culture to be a supplementary to Japanese traditional art. By pop-culture it is usually understood anime and manga, but also music (J-pop) and fashion. Since 2007 MOFA has been holding the annual Japan International Manga Award in the framework of which foreign authors of manga are awarded for helping spread Japanese manga culture abroad and foster cultural exchange. In 2008 MOFA launched the project called 'Anime Ambassador' which was designed to attract the interest of foreign audiences to Japanese animation and is supposed to travel around the world and represent anime culture and help build awareness about it. The first assigned Anime Ambassador was 'Doraemon', a character of a popular manga and anime series (The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan Official Website 2008). Another part of the pop-culture diplomacy that MOFA highlights is cosplay, which has outgrown its homeland and becomes popular worldwide. The World Cosplay Summit has also been held annually since 2007 and attracted participants from more than 40 countries (The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan Official Website 2017). The winner of the biggest cosplay festival in Japan is awarded the Foreign Minister's Prize.

Pop-culture seems to be one of the most attractive parts of Japan's soft power strategy. It is ranked as one of the strongest parts in soft power rankings, and is spread all over the world. Japanese animation and manga get millions of views and purchases. However, as it was already mentioned, pop-culture is only one part of the larger subset of cultural exchange policies which will be discussed further. Other policies in these subset include education of Japanese language, Japanese studies and intellectual exchange, as well as Arts and Cultural Exchange and Japan Culture Volunteers Program. MOFA believes that promoting Japanese language learning abroad contributes to better understanding of Japanese culture, preparing people for international exchange with Japan and, in such way, establishing ground for good relationships with foreign countries. According to the data collected by the Japan Foundation (2015), about 3.7 billion people from 137 countries learn Japanese language with various purposes. As the data showed, people started to learn Japanese language not only for the purposes of education in Japan or finding employment, but also because of the increase in the popularity of anime and manga, and out of the aspirations to comprehend Japanese culture. The Japan Foundation works on promoting Japanese language education by sending their specialists in Japanese language abroad, inviting Japanese teachers and students from other countries to participate in training programs in Japan, designing material for language learning, and carrying speech contests abroad. The Japanese Language Proficiency Test (JLPT) is organised in 85 countries. Also, the Japan Foundation responds to the demands of people who might not have opportunity to learn Japanese language at the specially designed for it organisations and provides the online platform "JF Japanese e-Learning Minato", where people can get distant learning. In addition, to expand community of people learning Japanese language, the "JF Nihongo Network" was established by the Japan Foundation that allows for building communication networks connecting teacher communities and language specialists from around the globe. Finally, under the framework of Japanese Language Education, so-called 'NIHONGO Partners' - Japanese citizens - are sent to local schools in Southeast Asia to help Japanese teachers. By the year 2020, the number of NIHONGO Partners sent abroad is supposed to reach 3000 people.

1.2 Cultural exchange

A special place in the broader array of soft power tools in Japan's strategy takes the introduction of Japanese culture through the cultural exchange program and volunteers program. `Arts and Cultural Exchange' is a set of programs realised by the Japan Foundation and has as its goals to build awareness of Japanese culture by making connections worldwide through programs that allow for exchange and cooperation in spheres of art, music, cinematography, design and fashion. In the sphere of visual arts, the Japan foundation carries out support programs to assist museums and art galleries which arrange exhibitions of Japanese art and culture in foreign countries. Along with this, Japan's government finances its exhibitions to be presented both within a country and abroad. It supports artists at the international biennales and triennales whose works respond to the criteria.

On top of that, the Japan Foundation coordinates exchange programs for artists and people who work with art, which allows for better communication in the sphere and exchange of ideas. In the field of performing arts, the organisation conducts collaborative projects with other countries and introduces grants for artists. Such programs of exchange contribute to building networks and improving relationships with countries-participants. The Japan Foundation sponsors Japanese artists to send them abroad with their performances to introduce traditional or modern art to foreign audiences. In Europe and North America, it finances organisations and performances that try to introduce Japanese arts to regional communities. The website `Performing Arts Network Japan', maintained by the organisation, allows for communication and collaboration of experts in art and artists and encourages them to share ideas and information. The organisations are also responsible for media publications, news coverage, broadcasting of Japan's TV programs, organising film festivals, and showing of Japan's films and animation at the international film festivals. In order to ensure access to relevant and accurate information, it provides assistance for translation of Japanese books and articles on Arts and Humanities in foreign languages. In addition, multiple lectures, showcases, workshops are arranged with Japanese experts and professionals to deliver an authentic personal experience of such traditional Japanese practices as flower arrangement (Ikebana), tea ceremonies, etc.

Another crucial part of the policy that supports `Arts and Cultural Exchange' is the `Japan Culture Volunteers Program' which were proposed by The Council on the Movement of People Across Borders as a means to reinforce the influence of Japan's soft power. The council suggested that the distribution of Japanese values, language, and culture could be fortified by creating an individual experience and sending volunteers abroad. The program was directed at European countries, particularly at Romania, Bulgaria, Hungary, and Poland, to which Japanese volunteers were already sent in the past. By establishing this program, the council expected to foster communication and exchange and, thus, to maintain a friendly relationship with these countries. The above-mentioned programs, reforms, and policies were designed to work jointly on the common goal to foster cultural exchange and introduce Japanese culture to foreign audiences.

On the grounds of post-structuralism, using theoretical tools developed by Foucault (1982) and Deleuze and Guattari (1987), current Japan's soft power strategy could be examined from the point of view of assemblage power. Pop-culture diplomacy appears to be one strain of policies within a larger group of policies under an umbrella of actions and reforms directed at the improvement of cultural exchange. What is more, cultural exchange programs are part of the whole public diplomacy strategy that intertwines in a complex structure with its other parts, including public relations, `people-to-people exchange', cooperation with international organisations, cultural grant assistance, local partnership cooperation, etc. Taking Foucault's (1982) framework for the analysis of power relations from the point of institutions, it is evident that designated bodies perform the reforms to improve Japan's image and improve overall understanding of its politics abroad. Institutions responsible for the implementation of reforms are the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan, Trade and Industry, the Agency for Cultural Affairs on the basis the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology. The means for the implementation of the strategy include policies, contests and competitions, and various programs oriented at the improvement of public relations. To that end, it could be concluded that pop-culture diplomacy acts in the assemblage of other programs that are, in turn, placed within the larger subset of policies that are guided by the common goal of advancing and promoting a chosen image of Japan and boosting its influence overseas.

Furthermore, taking into account the concept of the culture industry developed by Adorno (2004), it is possible to argue that culture is an exceptional tool that can be used for manipulation and persuasion. Since culture has become an industry in the sense that it creates and sells products according to the demand of consumers, it can be used as a tool of coercion and persuasion of large audiences. In this manner, the government of Japan efficiently uses pop-culture as a part of its broader strategy in order to disseminate its values, improve understanding of its policies, and, inherently, sell its image to gain influence. 

2. People-to-People Exchange

2.1 Educational exchange programs

So-called 'People-to-People Exchange' is another influential part of Japan's public diplomacy strategy, which is as vital as acclaimed pop-culture diplomacy. People-to-People Exchange can be divided into four main parts: education exchange, youth exchange, sports exchange, and 'Japan's Friendship Ties Programs'. The foundation of People-to-People Exchange is programs of student exchange, which main aims are to make Japan's system of higher education internationally recognised, assist young people from developing countries in getting higher education, and to strengthen relations of friendship with other countries. The program works both ways, accepting students to come study in Japan and promoting Japanese students to study abroad. The goal that was set by the government when designing this part of the exchange was to admit 300 000 of international students by 2020. The main ministries responsible for the realisation of this plan are The Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The ministries are in charge of providing relevant up to date information to possible applicants, which includes personal consultations, holding information sessions with discussions on various possibilities of studying in Japan. One of the most important programs offered is the Japanese Government Scholarship, which is ready to accept students from 190 countries and regions. Overseas missions of Japan organise orientation programs for accepted students and support them during their stay in Japan. The MOFA and overseas missions of Japan keep supporting alumni by creating 205 alumni associations and staying in touch with former international students. Japan's government and MOFA believe in the value of global connections that can be created by the international students' exchange and on these grounds stimulates Japanese students to participate in such programs and provides with the necessary support.

Except for student exchange programs, the MOFA also conducts 'Youth Exchange' programs, which is realised in various forms. One of them is 'Japan Exchange and Teaching Program (JET)'. The program allows young people from all over the world to come to Japan and teach a variety of subjects in local schools or to work in local governments and municipalities in Japan's prefectures, thus fostering international exchange in localities. There are three main job specifications that allow participants to work in spheres of school teaching, international relations, and sport exchange. The participants of the program are expected to stay in touch with Japan's government and represent a pro-Japan view while working in their home countries. Also, some of the participants stay and work as part of Japan's overseas missions. Such program is supposed not only to promote international exchange but to create personnel that would be as a connection between Japan and their countries. The JET Alumni Association (JETAA) is another powerful tool that helps to bridge Japan with other countries. The JETAA involves approximately 23000 members all over the world who might take part in grassroots movements supporting Japan and encouraging good relations with it.

Since Japan is specifically interested in the improvement of its image and relations in Southeast Asia, it offers exclusive exchange programs for this region too. In 2013 the MOFA launched a program of exchange between Japan and ASEAN countries called 'JENESYS 2.0'. This project's goal was not just improving the nation's image, but also stimulating the economy, stimulating interest to the country, and increasing the number of tourists coming to Japan. In the framework of this program, short-term visits to Japan for young people from ASEAN countries are organised, including homestay, sightseeing, visiting companies, etc. Another project that is aimed at the member states of ASEAN is The Japan-ASEAN Student Conference. At the conference students from these countries discuss the prospects of Japan-ASEAN relationships and possibilities of cooperation. By taking these actions, Japan's government expects to generate a vast network of people contributing to the development of relations between countries and promoting understanding of Japan's position. Besides above-mentioned programs, Japan's government organises other exchange programs aimed at promoting friendly relationships in the regions of North and South America (KAKEHASHI Project, Juntos!!), Europe (MIRAI), the Caribbean(Juntos!!), and Oceania(JENESYS).

2.2 Results of the educational exchange programs

The efforts of Japan's government put in the internationalising higher education led to an increase in the popularity of Japan as a destination country of many students. As the Annual Survey of International Students (2017) conducted by the Japan Student Services Organisation suggests, the number of international students enrolled in the universities increased by almost 12% during the previous year. Overall, the data corresponds to the trend of a continuous increase in the number of international students since 1983 and until nowadays. In general, the number of international students in Japan almost doubled. Starting at 163697 in 2011, the number reached 267042 of international students enrolled in the universities in Japan by the year 2017. Getting an education in Japan seems to be popular among Asian countries, including the region of southeast Asia and ASEAN member countries. Thus, countries in the Top 10 of international students by nationality are China, Vietnam, Nepal, Republic of Korea, Taiwan, Sri Lanka, Indonesia, Myanmar, Thailand, and Malaysia (JASSO 2017). The trends seem to be positive comparing to the statistics on the overall university enrolment rates in Japan, which have been steadily declining since the 2010s.

People-to-People branch of Japan's soft power policy represents a whole system of interconnected exchange programs working on building an extensive network of connections in all parts of the world and promoting friendly relationships with the countries of participants. The exchange programs touch upon several areas of human lives which allows for a broader coverage of audiences from various spheres. In such a way, programs concern exchange between graduate and post-graduate students, school teachers, interpreters, international relations specialists, young people, and athletes. What allows to distinguish this branch of policy from the pop-culture diplomacy is that its purpose not spreading a positive image of Japan as such, but rather fostering communication with people and building network for the representation of Japan's views overseas. In this manner, People-to-People exchange programs that focus on international exchange can be understood as part of assemblage of soft power policies under the common aim of creating an appealing image, improving relations, and creating instruments of coercion and persuasion. Employing Foucault's steps for analysis of power relations from the point of institutions, it can be said that all of these policies are organised and regulated by the Japan's government and specific institutions and organisations designed for this. The policies act by means of exchange programs, scholarships, conferences and other events that incorporate communication and socialisation processes. By inviting exchange students and specialists to take part in various kinds of programs, Japan promotes its cultural values, increasing comprehension of its culture and understanding of its policies.

What is more, creating such a unique personal experience allows to generate a sense of attachment is an investment into social capital. Promoting such policies helps to build a base of people who can stand up for Japan's views and represent its interests. To conclude, international exchange programs are the second part of the broader assemblage of soft power policies, which help Japan promote its interests overseas and foster friendly relationships.

3. Public Relations

3.1 Public Relations Organisations

One of the crucial parts of any promotion strategy is the communication of the information to the audiences and building awareness. For this reason, Public Relations are identified by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs as a separate set of actions. They include a variety of tools and means of communication which range from websites, platforms, centres and specific organizations, programs, and social media and through which the government provides information about politics, economy, society, and culture. The largest source of all relevant information about Japan is `Web Japan' website (web-japan.org) which delivers information in 8 languages (English, French, Spanish, Korean, Chinese, Deutsch, Russian, and Portuguese). The website covers topic ranging from society, government, economy, technology, sport, culture, food, tourism, pop-culture, including videos and a magazine on these themes and a version for kids. The Web Japan also regularly creates videos for the YouTube platform with different workshops and tutorials teaching Japanese arts telling about Japanese values and culture. Such a wide range of topics, categories, languages assumes a great extent of news and information coverage that can be seen all over the world. The MOFA also introduced a platform `Japan Up Close' (japanupclose.web-japan.org) for professionals inside and outside of Japan which publishes useful materials in different fields and articles on critical social issues, explaining Japan's government policy decisions, introducing Japan and its specifics and many other.

Japan House is another essential part of the public relations strategy which serves as a global network system located in 3 cities (London, Los Angeles, and Sao Paulo), the aim of which is to communicate relevant information about Japan in person and provide services related to spreading information. Each of the Japan Houses has multiple facilities such as exhibition space, retail space, restaurants and cafes, book stores, etc. Utilizing the functions of these facilities allows the network to perform various activities and deliver a unique personal experience of traditional arts and crafts, technology, cuisine, pop-culture, and others. There is one more separate organization to represent Japan abroad which is the `Japan Creative Centre' located in Singapore, and it performs functions similar to those of the Japan House. The centre introduces all the main features of `Cool Japan' such as pop-culture, including music, animation, films, manga, fashions and design, as well as traditional arts and crafts. In the centre are included an all-purpose hall, Electronic library, exhibition hall and other facilities.

3.2 Other tools of Public Relations

In order to have a complete understanding of public perceptions in other countries, Japan's government conducts an annual opinion poll. The poll contains the information in graphs and charts with relevant statistics on a narrow set of countries which might change from year to year. The countries featured in the opinion polls since 1999 and until today are the United States, Canada, Australia, ASEAN member countries, Mongolia, India, Cфte d'Ivoire, Kenya, South Africa, the United Kingdom, France, Germany, Italy, Spain, Hungary, Russia, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyz Republic, Tajikistan, Egypt, Tunisia, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Turkey, and Latin American and Caribbean countries. The poll covers a public opinion on the central questions: overall impressions of relations with Japan, reliability of Japan as a partner, which other Asian countries are important partners, and the role of Japan in the Asia-Pacific region. In the ASEAN member countries, opinion polls also were included questions about the peaceful and friendly character of Japan's policy after the World War II, the role of Japan in the promoting economic growth, security, and stability. Participants also are asked with a range of other questions concerning Japan as a destination country for education, spheres for improvement, economic and technical cooperation, etc. African countries' audiences were asked about their expectations of Japan's investment and financial assistance and the role of Japan in promoting development cooperation. The consistency with which these opinion polls have been conducted since 1999 and a choice of countries for them indicate that it is an essential measure of Japan's actions in the soft power realm. The government of Japan seems to keep an eye on the change in the attitude of foreign publics and perception of the country abroad.

A further example of how Japan's government engages with the public is the 'Japan Brand Program'. The program, just like most of the other initiatives, is concerned with the promotion of values and acquaintance with traditional arts, modern culture, and peculiarities of Japan's society. The introduction of these values and principles come through a variety of actions, events, workshops, lectures conducted by Japanese experts in different fields who are sent abroad to represent Japanese culture and share their knowledge. The projects under this program are held in places all over the world, both outside and within Japan. Since 2014 numerous events were organized in Spain, Italy, Peru, Chile, Canada, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Oman, Malaysia, Belgium, Lebanon, China, Australia, the United States, Slovenia, Croatia, Austria, Romania, Russia, Poland, Denmark, Czech Republic, Hungary, Belarus, Estonia, Portugal, Morocco, Argentina, Uruguay, India, Israel, Palestine, Finland, France, Austria, the United Kingdom, Brazil, Germany, and many other. The formats of the projects that were organized range from lectures, seminars, and workshops to film screening, collaboration projects, and ceremonies. The program aims to deliver information and personal experience of Japan's culture to local communities in different countries all over the world.

Besides posting information about social life and culture and holding lectures and workshops, the government of Japan is also concerned with delivering the relevant information about its foreign policy decisions. In this way, on the website of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, one can find videos in the English language about Japan's actions in the sphere of international security and its contributions to stabilizing international environment, bringing peace, and fostering global cooperation. The videos also provide information on the actions of Japan in the environment, tackling climate change and global warming domestically and internationally, its post-war relations with China and Korea, and so on. The latest information about Japan and its politics is accessible on the website of 'NHK WORLD-JAPAN'. One of the most prominent Japan's media organizations NHK created this service to keep people updated within Japan and abroad online, through television, and radio. 'NHK WORLD-JAPAN' tells the latest news and warns about disasters and earthquakes. All the relevant information is available in the most spread languages that allow reaching as extensive coverage as possible. Furthermore, in order to keep a presence, the Ministry of Foreign affairs updates its official accounts in social networking services such as Twitter, Facebook, and YouTube.

Employing the concept of 'assemblage' taken from the post-structuralist school of philosophy, it is evident that discussed directions of the Japan's soft power strategy are working together using a multiplicity of instruments and tools. More than that, some parts of the strategy, like particular programs and organizations, are intertwined and overlap in their functions. These programs and policies appear to be designed and implemented by the same institutions and ministries which are responsible for this. Moreover, most of the programs strive for the same objectives of improving understanding of Japan's position and values and disseminating information. Most of the policies and programs are realized through implementation of the same tools, such as organizing lectures, workshops, and conferences. However, one of the distinctive features of the strategy is delivering services of providing specific information through centres and houses placed on the territory of foreign countries. Another objective of these centres is providing a unique and personal experience of Japan's culture locally. Also, as it could be understood out of the opinion polls, Japan is concerned with the perceptions of foreign audiences, which it analyses in order to adjust its soft power policy in accordance with their interests. Providing relevant up to date information about news on politics or social life in a wide range of languages is another strong point in the soft power strategy of Japan. Implementing these programs, in combination with educational and cultural exchange, makes a more substantial impact on foreign publics. It increases awareness and understanding of Japanese culture and Japan's policies as well. A variety of policies, programs, organizations designed to work towards the same goals by using different tools and instruments can be described as an assemblage power. From what was discussed above, it is apparent that the soft power strategy of Japan performs as an assemblage of policies within one complex mechanism.

4. Cooperation with International Organisations

4.1 UNESCO

Another priority that is addressed by Japan's government in their public diplomacy is mutual work with international organisations. This dimension is particularly important in the modern context with the salience of such issues as climate change, poverty, terrorism, peace and stability, etc. that can be only solved globally by uniting efforts of all countries. Although, the government of Japan focuses not only on these aspects but also on such factors as culture and education, which can help reduce poverty and bring stability to the international community. The role of education has been stressed as one of the indicators that facilitate the growth and development of countries. For these purposes, Japan's government is engaged in cooperative relationships with UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) and the United Nations University.

The United Nations founded UNESCO as a specialised organisation in 1946 to foster peace and stability in the international environment and encourage cooperation between nations in the spheres of education and science. UNESCO became the first organisation of the United Nations that Japan joined after World War II in 1951 and continues to support it nowadays. Japan supports UNESCO financially: Japan provides a significant budget share of the organisation. Besides, being the Executive Board member in 1991, Japan proposed an institutional reform to the organisation which changed its administrative structure and performance. Apart from these, Japan cooperates with the organisation and creation of programs. Two main funds were established as a result of this collaborative work: the UNESCO Japanese Trust Fund for the Preservation of the World Cultural Heritage, the UNESCO Japanese Trust Fund for the Safeguarding of Intangible Cultural Heritage. Japan also supports financially different UNESCO projects in spheres of information, science, environment, and education.

Additionally, Japan contributes to the development of these projects by taking part in the exchange of specialists and professionals in these spheres. On top of that, Japan set up Funds-in-Trust such as the Japanese Funds-in-Trust for the Capacity-building of Human Resources, Japanese Funds-in-Trust for the Promotion of Education in Asia and Pacific Region, and the Japanese Funds-in-Trust for the Promotion of Global Action Programme on Education for Sustainable Development. These funds within UNESCO were designed to contribute to promoting education in developing countries and fostering sustainable growth. One of the most important of these is the UNESCO Japanese Fund-in-Trust for the Capacity-building of Human Resources. This fund-in-trust was founded with the aim to contribute to the development of capacity-building and human capital in developing countries. The fund organises projects aimed at facilitating progress in the sphere of education. For instance, more than 200 projects, such as training programs, seminars to prevent the spread of HIV, teachers' training, and exchange of experts in education, were organised since 2012 in many African, Latin American, Caribbean, and Asian countries. Besides, the fund organises programs to support research in developing countries. The funds as well contribute to the development of such sectors as science, technology, and information and communication technology.

One more aspect on which Japan's government is working with UNESCO is a cultural heritage which is given a high value. Japan advocates for the importance of preserving tangible and intangible cultural heritage all over the world and supports actions aimed to do it. The government values cultural heritage for its ability to transfer historical legacy to future generations and encourages global cooperation for the preservation of it. Accordingly, Japan is a participant of the global preservation campaign which was launched by the World Heritage Convention in 1959 aimed at the protection of intangible cultural heritage internationally. The Japanese Funds-in-Trust for the Preservation of the World Cultural Heritage was also established with these purposes and assists actions for safeguarding historical buildings and ruins worldwide. At the domestic level, for the preservation of tangible cultural heritage in 1950, Japan's government introduced the Law for the Protection of Cultural Properties, becoming one of the first countries to do it. Having this experience and knowledge allowed Japan to become one of the main actors helping to design the Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage at the UNESCO. Within the limits of the soft power strategy, Japan acknowledges that these kinds of action might take longer to achieve positive results. However, the government of Japan still believes that assistance to the preservation of cultural heritage has an effect on foreign cultures and audiences and in the long-run will be beneficial for it.

4.2 The United Nations University (UNU)

The other main organisation that Japan decided to cooperate with is the United Nations University. It is an international think tank organisation which also conducts post-graduate education. The United Nations University (UNU)was established with the proposal of UN Secretary-General in 1969 (although academic activities began only in 1975) and is dedicated to the fulfilment of the United Nations Charter goals of development and peace. The headquarters of the UNU is located in Japan, Tokyo, and it functions due to the significant financial assistance from the government of Japan. The government invests in the research in the spheres of growth and development, peace, and environment, aiming at providing solutions to global problems and enhancing human capacity in developing countries.

Looking at the structure of Japan's cooperation with international organisations, it is apparent that Japan's main priorities are education and science. Japan's government is dedicated to enhancing human capacity, investing in research, and promoting education in developing countries. Japan appears to be interested in building long-term relationships with developing countries by contributing to its development. Analysing the strategy for cooperation through the theoretical framework of post-structuralism, it can be seen that there is primarily one tactic - investment. Japan supports financially various initiatives of these organisations. In terms of relations of power, the responsibility of implementing these initiatives lies on the specific organisations and institutions which were established with this purpose. These organisations are UNESCO, several Funds-in-Trust such as the Japanese Funds-in-Trust for the Capacity-building of Human Resources, Japanese Funds-in-Trust for the Promotion of Education in Asia and Pacific Region, the Japanese Funds-in-Trust for the Promotion of Global Action Programme on Education for Sustainable Development, Funds-in-Trust for the Preservation of the World Cultural Heritage, and the United Nations University. By far, it appears that through implementing these programs and maintaining cooperative relationships with international organisations, Japan not only seeks to improve its reputation in the international community, but it also looks for the long-term benefits of cooperation with the developing countries it invests in.

5. Cultural Grant Assistance

Connected to the previous dimension of cooperation with the international organisations, the Cultural Grant Assistance is also focused on the support for developing countries. The Cultural Grant Assistance is an aid program that was launched in 1975 under the framework of the Official Development Assistance (ODA), which is one of the priorities of the Japan's general foreign policy. This assistance corresponds to the increasing interest in helping developing countries to strengthen their economy, social life, and culture as well. Supporting developing countries financially through this grant, the government of Japan expects to build a trustful relationships based on mutual understanding.

On these foundations, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs suggests two courses of the assistance system: `Cultural Grant Assistance' and "Grant Assistance for Cultural Grassroots Projects'. The objectives of the `Cultural Grant Assistance' are protection of culture and cultural heritage, and promotion of higher education. Within this project, the aid is given in the form of equipment and by building or retorting facilities. `Grant Assistance for Cultural Grassroots Projects' are concerned with the same objectives, although unlike the `Cultural Grant Assistance', the aid is distributed to the local government or to the Non-Governmental Organisations (NGO). Educational activities supported through these grants involve learning Japanese language, studying Japan and its culture at universities and schools, and teaching traditional Japanese martial arts such as karate, judo, ect. For the period from 1975 to 2017, the Cultural Grant Assistance contributed to 1436 projects, donating more than 67000 million yen. "Grant Assistance for Cultural Grassroots Projects' is not only concerned with the promotion of higher education and preservation of cultural heritage, but recently one of its objectives has become promotion of sports. Specifically for this purpose "Sport for Tomorrow" project and Cultural Grant Assistance for the Promotion of Sports were launched. These projects are aimed at the promotion of traditional Japanese sports and martial arts, particularly judo. Within the framework of this type of assistance judo tatami mats, uniforms, other required equipment, and the opportunities for people-to-people exchange were provided to developing countries.

Japan aims to provide a significant help to developing countries through such projects aiming at promoting research, higher education, sports, and exchange. The responsibility of implementing these projects is given to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. `Cultural Grant Assistance' as well as cooperation with international organisations that were discussed previously are not only priorities of the soft power strategy, but also included in the overall foreign policy agenda. For the purposes of the soft power strategy, however, the results at which the Japan's government is aimed, can be obtained in the long-run. Despite this fact, the government of Japan and its ministries are willing to invest in the developing countries and support the promotion of such spheres as research, eduacitom, cultural heritage, and sports. Supporting developing countries financially and providing them with various opportunities, Japan expects to build reliable relationships and deepen mutual understanding. Promoting learning of Japanese language and culture at local schools and teaching traditional Japanese sports are also expected to create an interest to Japan and foster understanding. Therefore, as it could be seen, the soft power strategy of Japan consists of short-term as well as long-term projects and is aimed at different dimensions, sharing the common aims of improving the nation's image, building awareness, fostering understanding, promoting cultural values, and internationalising education. Hence, `Cultural Grant Assistance' represents only one part of the whole assemblage of programs and projects. The government of Japan and specialised organisations responsible for the implementation of the soft power strategy diversify its aims, not only focusing on the fast results of mass media and communication technologies, but also investing in long-term goals, such as building good relationships with developing countries.