Migration along the Balkan route

У статті висвітлюються міграційні потоки вздовж Балканського маршруту, які залишалися активними протягом десятиліть, незважаючи на зусилля європейських країн контролювати цей процес. Міграція, на відміну від очікувань, виявилася набагато складнішим явищем, ніж передбачалося. Це спричинило численні проблеми в економічному, політичному, соціальному житті країн, розташованих уздовж Балканського міграційного шляху. Це негативно вплинуло на Європейський Союз, який, незважаючи на всі зусилля, продемонстрував нездатність взяти під контроль своє функціонування. migrant balkan european migration

Метою статті є короткий аналіз міграції вздовж Балканського маршруту та її впливу на ЄС. Зокрема, у статті досліджуються чинники, що впливають на рішення мігрантів поїхати до Європи; історичні передумови міграції до Європи; регулярна та нерегулярна міграція, а також тенденції міграції через Балкани до та після пандемії. Для дослідження визначено такі завдання: 1) дослідити процес міграції вздовж Балканського міграційного шляху, скласти карту регулярних і нерегулярних міграційних потоків; 2) виділити фактори, що впливають на вибір місця призначення нелегальних мігрантів; 3) визначити та проаналізувати періоди міграційних потоків до Європи. Балканський шлях був досить інтенсивним з точки зору міграції. З січня по травень 2021 року було зареєстровано 14723 випадки незаконного перетину кордону. Мігранти прибули з Сирії, Афганістану, Марокко та Лівії. Саме ці країни «постачають» найбільшу частину мігрантів, які рухаються по Балканському маршруту. У попередні роки, 2015-2016, балканський маршрут був домінуючим коридором для мігрантів, які прямували до Центральної та Західної Європи. Загалом мігранти досить обдумано вибирали країну призначення в Європі. У статті наведено індекс, який демонструє найменші та найбільш прийнятні країни для мігрантів. Автор приходить до висновку, що балканський міграційний шлях протягом 2001-2021 років довів, що в багатьох випадках Європа залишається пріоритетом мігрантів з багатьох причин. Ставлення громадян країн-членів ЄС (місця призначення) набагато позитивніше, ніж ставлення балканських країн (транзитні).

Ключові слова: міграція, Балкани, Балканський міграційний шлях, Європейський Союз, країна призначення.

Introduction

Migration crisis in Europe turned out to be a challenge for the UE and almost each of the European countries. Nobody expected that migration will bring up so many negative consequences that will affect economy, politics, social life and other spheres.

The migration flow to European countries through the Balkans has various names: the Balkan route, the Balkan corridor, the Balkans, but despite the variety of names it is still about the same phenomenon - the way of migration from Syria, Afghanistan, Morocco and Libya up to Germany, Austria, Denmark and Sweden. These countries have a certain tradition of immigration.

Building on the data assessment, this study is an attempt to provide an overview of the Balkan migration route, to identify the factors that push people from other countries to start up their journey to Europe and to provide more granular information about the profile of people who have travelled to Europe through the Western Balkans.

The purpose of the article is to provide a brief analysis of migration along the Balkan route and its influence on the EU. In particular, the study examines the push and pulls factors affecting migrants' decision to travel to Europe; the historical background of migration to Europe; regular and irregular migration as well as preand post-pandemic tendencies of migration through the Balkans.

The following tasks are defined for the study: 1) examine the process of migration along the Balkan migration route from, mapping regular and irregular migration flow; 2) distinguish the factors, influencing destination choice of irregular migrants; 3) identify and analyze the time periods of the migration flow into Europe.

The data collected on the topic was retrieved from a variety of open sources. Due to the fact that the topic of the Balkan migration is urgent, in addition to scientific literature and official reports, the study uses newspapers, media and online sources to stay abreast of the changes. Where relevant, comparisons are made with findings from assessment, conducted by Frontex since 2015 to 2018 and Gallup of 2016 and 2019.

Basic definitions and terms

The meaning of migrant remains contested. According to the definition offered by the United Nations (UN), migrant is an umbrella term, not defined under international law, reflecting the common lay understanding of a person who moves away from his or her place of usual residence, whether within a country or across an international border, temporarily or permanently, and for a variety of reasons¹. The UN uses the official name of «international migrant» as «any person who changes his or her country of usual residence». Specific definitions have also been developed by UN to identify short-term and long-term migrants.

J. Carling offered two approaches to define the term `migrant': the inclusivist approach, considers the term `migrant' as an umbrella term covering all forms of movements; the residua list approach excludes from the term «migrant» those who flee wars or persecution Sironi, A. Bauloz, C., Emmanuel, M. (Eds.) (2019). Glossary on migration. Geneva: international Organization for Migration, 132. Carling, J. (N/A). What is the meaning of `migrants'? Meaningofmigrants.org. Retrieved from: https://meaningofmigrants.org/.

The European Union (EU) defines immigration as the action by which a person establishes his or her usual residence in the territory of a Member State for a period of 12 months, having previously been usually resident in another Member State or a third country Glossary: Migration (2018, July 4). Eurostat. Retrieved from: https: / /ec.europa. eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php?title=Glossary: Migration.. Immigrant is a person undertaking immigration.

The term migrant is used with reference to all those on the Balkan route travelling to Europe, including people who intend to seek asylum and may later gain refugee status.

Regular migration is a process of migration that occurs in compliance with the laws of the country of origin, transit and destination Sironi, A. Bauloz, C., Emmanuel, M. (Eds.) (2019). Glossary on migration, 175.. Irregular migrants are all those outside normal transit procedures, i.e. migrants without documentation. It is worth mentioning that although a universally accepted definition of irregular migration does not exist, the term is generally used to identify people moving outside regular migration channels.

Apart from migrants, few more terms are in use, in particular - a transit country and a destination country. Transit countries are the countries that migrants go through to their final place. Destination country is a final place for migration flows.

Literature review

UNO human rights conventions recognize the right of people to leave their country of origin, but reserve their right to admission to another country. Proponents of open borders for migrants support the idea that states should have no powers to restrict the freedom of migrants. A utilitarian approach presupposes that migration should be governed by the rules.

The number of migration researches undertaken over the last twenty years suggests that it has been one of the most important and popular issues in political science, sociology, economics, anthropology and cultural studies. Numerous studies directly related to the Balkan migration route outline various aspects of the problem.

The researches on the topic of the Balkan route could be grouped accordingly: 1) reasons of migration, needs and vulnerabilities of migrants; 2) legal framework of the EU and the no EU countries, ethics and politics of migration and border; 3) ways of migration, illegal and irregular migration, refugee smuggling; 4) statistics of regional and world organizations.

The first group is represented by works of scholars dedicated to obstacles and barriers on the way to Western and Northern Europe. Among them: Ahmetasevic⁵; Prtoric⁶; King and Oruc⁷; Fenton, Borton, Collinson and Foley⁸; Kuschminder et al.⁹; Aslany, Carling, Mjelva & Sommerfelt¹⁰.

Ahmetasevic¹¹ outlined the limits to access to asylum along the Balkan route. Prtoric¹² argues that along the Balkan route, refugees and volunteers face growing hostility. The scholar pointed out that in Bosnia resentment was mounting, tension was growing in Serbia, help interrupted in Croatia and fear internalized in Slovenia. In the book «Migration in the Western Balkans» ¹³ edited by R. King and N. Oruc, scholars traced trends and challenges of migration in the Western Balkans, analyzed civic initiatives and grassroots responses to the refugee crisis along the Balkans route.

The journal «Refugees and Vulnerable Migrants in Europe» makes observation of the problems that migrants faced while moving through the Balkans¹⁴. Kuschminder et al.¹⁵ studied the Balkan Route and the role of turkey in the process. Additional accent was made on the Afghans' and Syrians' decision making in Turkey and on the Western Balkans route and the interaction of policies and decision making. J. Carling together with his colleagues analyzed numerous publications on push and pull factors, trying to single out the most significant ones. As a result, they finalized with 49 articles included in a systematic literature review¹⁶. ^{5 Ahmetasevic, N. (2021). Limits to Access to Asylum Along the Balkan Route. Retrieved from: https:} // resourcecentre.savethechildren.net/node /19190/ pdf/rrelimi

tedaccesstoasylumalongthebalkan route.pdf

⁶ Prtoric, J. (2021, February 24). Along the Balkan route, refugees and volunteers face growing hostility. EQUAL TIMES. Retrieved from: https://www. equaltimes.org/along-the-balkan-route-refugees

⁷King, R., Oruc, N. (Eds.) (2019 November 19). Migration in the Western Balkans. What do we know? N.Y.: Routledge.

⁸ Fenton, W., Borton, J., Collinson, S., Foley, M. (Eds.) (2016, September). Refugees and Vulnerable Migrants in Europe. Humanitarian Exchange, 67. Retrieved from: https://odihpn.org/wp- content/uploads/2016/09/HE-67-FINAL.pdf

⁹ Kuschminder K., Dubow T., I^duygu A., Ustubici A., Kiri^^ioglu E., Engbersen G., Mitrovic O. (2019, September). Decision Making on the Balkan Route and the EU-Turkey Statement. Retrieved from: file:///D:/Downloads/1575026 666.pdf

¹⁰ Aslany, M., Carling J., Mjelva, M.B., Sommerfelt, T. (2021). Systematic review of determinants of migration aspirations. QuantMig Project Deliverable D2.2. Southampton: University of Southampton. Ahmetasevic, N. (2021). Limits to Access to Asylum Along the Balkan Route. Retrieved from: https://resourcecentre.savethechildren.net/node/1Q1QQ/pdf/rrelimi

tedaccesstoasylumalongthebalkan route.pdf

¹² Prtoric, J. (2021, February 24). Along the Balkan route, refugees and volunteers face growing hostility. EQUAL TIMES. Retrieved from: https://www. equaltimes.org/along-the-balkan-route-refugees

¹³ King, R., Oruc, N. (Eds.) (2019 November 19). Migration in the Western Balkans. What do we know? N.Y.: Routledge.

¹⁴ Fenton, W., Borton, J., Collinson, S., Foley, M. (Eds.) (2016, September). Refugees and Vulnerable Migrants in Europe. Humanitarian Exchange, 67. Retrieved from: https://odihpn.org/wp- content/uploads/2016/09/HE-67-FINAL.pdf

¹⁵ Kupiszewski, M., Kicinger A., Kupiszewska, D., Fliterman, F.H. (2009, November). Labour Migration Patterns, Policies and Migration Propensity in the Western Balkans. IOM. Regional Mission for Central and South-Eastern Europe.

¹⁶ Aslany, M., Carling J., Mjelva, M.B., Sommerfelt, T. (2021). Systematic review of determinants of migration aspirations. QuantMig Project Deliverable D2.2. Southampton: University of Southampton.

The works of the second group explained the ethics and politics of migration and border regime. Astuti et al. Astuti M., Bove C., Brambilla A., Clementi A., Facchini D., Giordani C., Maraone S., Pignocchi P., Saccora D., Stojanova I. (2020, June). The Balkan route. Migrants without rights in the heart of Europe. Retrieved from: https:// www.asgi.it/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/The-Balkan-RouteReport-2020-by--Rivolti-ai-Balcani-italian-network.pdf observed the hardships of migrants en route to Europe. Beznec, Speer, and Mitrovic Beznec, B., Speer, M., Mitrovic, M.S. (2016). Governing the Balkan Route: Macedonia, Serbia and the European Border Regime. Beograd: Rosa Luxemburg Stiftung. focused on Macedonia, Serbia and the European border regime. Oruc et al. Oruc, N., Raza, S. and D. Santic (2020, March). The Western Balkan Migration Route (2015-2019). Analytical Report. Retrieved from file:///D:/Downloads /Analytical western balkans ENG.pdf analyzed the time periods and events between 2015 to 2019 related to migration along the route. Among the researchers of the issues we can highlight Greider Greider, A. (2017, August 17). Outsourcing Migration Management: The Role of the Western Balkans in the European Refugee Crisis. Migration Information Source. Retrieved from https://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/outsourcing-migration-management-western-balkans-

europes-refugee-crisis, who studied the role of the Western Balkans in the European Refugee Crisis; Bonifazi et al. Bonifazi, C. (2008). Evolution of regional patterns of international migration in Europe. In C. Bonifazi, M. Okolski, J. Schoorl, & P. Simon (Eds.), International migration in Europe: New trends and new methods of analysis (pp. 107-128). Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press. and Kupiszewski et al. Kupiszewski, M., Kicinger A., Kupiszewska, D., Fliterman, F.H. (2009, November). Labour Migration Patterns, Policies and Migration Propensity in the Western Balkans. IOM. Regional Mission for Central and South-Eastern Europe., who focused on the labour migration patterns, policies and migration propensity in the Western Balkans boundaries. Bisiaux and Naegeli Bisiaux, S.A., Naegeli, L. (2021, June 01). Blackmail in the Balkans: how the EU is externalising its asylum policies. Statewatch. Retrieved from: https://www.statewatch.org/analyses/2021/blackmail- in-the-balkans-how-the-eu-is-externalising-its-asylum-policies/# ftn22 shifted attention to the rights of migrants and efforts of the EU to connect the Balkan countries' databases to Eurodac.

The third group enlisted works by Mandic Mandic, D. (2017a). Anatomy of a refugee wave: Forced migration on the Balkan route as two processes. Europe Now. Retrieved from: http://www.europe nowiournal.org/2017/01/04/anatomyof-a-refugee-wave-forced-migration-on-the-balkan-route-as-two-processes/ [in English]; Mandic, D. (2017b). Trafficking and Syrian refugee smuggling: Evidence from the Balkan route. Social Inclusion, 5(2), 28-38.; Cosgrave et al. Cosgrave, J., Hargrave, K., Foresti, M., Massa, I., Beresford, J., Dempster, H., Rea, J. (2016, September).

Europe's refuges and migrants: hidden flows, tightened borders and spiraling costs. Retrieved from: https: //www.academia. edu/35552227/EuropesrefugeesandmigrantsHiddenflowstightenedbordersand

spirallingcosts Cvejic, S., Babovic, M. (2014, November 07). Migration Flows in Western Balkan countries: Transit, Origin and Destination, 2009-2013. Geneva: IOM.; outlined the characteristics of migration in the Western Balkan countries, in particular transit, origin and destination, considering the period of 2009-2013. Abikova and Piotrowicz Abikova, J., Piotrowicz W. (2021, February 09). Shaping the Balkan corridor: Development and changes in the migration route 2015-16. Retrieved from: https: //onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10. 1111/imig.12828 highlighted the issue of development and changes in the migration route 201516. The scholars described the changes in the route and provided an analysis of transit via Balkan countries, looking at factors that influenced the shape of the corridor. Kuschminder et al. Kuschminder, K., Bresser, J. & M. Siegel (2015). Irregular Migration Routes to Europe and F actors Influencing Migrants' Destination Choices. Retrieved from file:///D:/Downloads/1436958842.pdf focused on the issue of irregular migration routes to Europe and factors affecting destination choices.

The fourth group consists of data reports, statistics surveys, borrowed from statistics moguls, such as UNO; Gallup; Erostat; European Commission; Frontex; Global Detention Project; EURACTIV; REACH; MPI (Migration Policy Institute); Migration Data Portal, ICMPD (International Centre for Migration Policy Development). BalkanInsight serves as a platform for the news regarding the Balkan migrant route; Belgian Agency for the Reception of Asylum Seekers (Fedasil) Resumption of Applications for International Protection (2020, 04, 03). Belgian Agency for the Reception of

Asylum Seekers (Fedasil). Retrieved from: https:www.fedasil.be/en/news/reception-asvlum-

seekers/resumption-applications-international-protection.

Meanwhile, the Balkan migration route lacks more detailed analysis over the period of 2020-2021.

Europe as migrants' purpose. Many roads of illegal migration lead to Europe. Among them: the Central Mediterranean route, the Western Mediterranean route, the Eastern Mediterranean route, the Western African route and the Balkan route.

The Balkan route entails two major migratory movements: those of migrants who are nationals of the Western Balkan states, and those of predominantly Asian migrants who initially entered the EU through the Greek or Turkish land or sea borders and then progressed through the Western Balkans into Hungary or Romania Frontex. (2014). Frontex Risk Analysis Network (FRAN) Quarter 2 April - June 2014. Retrieved from: https://frontex.europa.eu/assets/Publications/RiskAnalv sis/FRAN Q2 2014.pdf.

The Balkan route has been quite intensive from the point of view of migration. 14723 cases of illegal border crossing were registered between January and May 2021. Migrants came from Syria, Afghanistan, Morocco and Libya. In previous years, 2015-2016, the Balkan route was a dominant corridor for migrants heading to the Central and Western Europe. Greece was flooded by waves of migrants who came to the country by sea. More than 850,000 arrived to Greece in 2015, majority of whom moved farther through the Western Balkans to Northern and Western Europe UNHCR Global Report (2015). Retrieved from https://reporting.unhcr.Org /sites/default /files /GR 2015 Eng.pdf.

The Balkan route goes along the EU eastern external border stretching from Greece to Germany. It borders on Ukraine, Belarus, Moldova, the Russian Federation and Turkey. It crosses the territory of a group of countries of the former Yugoslavia (Macedonia, Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia and Slovenia). The western Balkan route goes through Hungary, Austria and Germany and farther to the west. With the influx of migrants, it evolved into three streams: the Northern route, the “Balkan route” itself and the Southern route. All of them started in Turkey, but in this case, it was a transit country. The “Balkan route” itself started in Turkey, moved through Greece and North Macedonia or Bulgaria to Serbia, then through Croatia, Slovenia and Austria to Germany. The southern route was leading through Greece over Albania, Montenegro, Bosnia and Herzegovina to Croatia, Slovenia and Austria to the destination country, which was Germany and even farther EU's Frontex border force deploys teams to Albania to halt migrants (2019, 05, 22). DW. Retrieved from https://www.infomigrants.net/en/post/17025/eu-s-frontex-border-force-deploys-teams-to-

albania-to-halt-migrants.

In 2016, migrants came from Syria (37%), Afghanistan (19%), Iraq (12%), Pakistan (3%), Eritrea (3%), Nigeria (3%), Iran (2%), Gambia (2%) and others (19%). Over the last two years the proportion significantly changed. In 2021 there were Afghans, Pakistanis, Syrians, Bangladeshis, Iranians and Moroccans, while others made up 33,2% (Table 1).

Table 1