This thesis is tracking different forms of gender representations in films. The data is collected through watching the films, analyzing/noting images and language. Discourse analysis can take various forms and does not necessarily implies particular coding system. However, this thesis relies on a coding framework used by Ottosson and Cheng when analyzing gender representation in films (Ottosson & Cheng, 2012):

Table 3: Coding framework

This research aims to compare the ways in which films contribute to structural violence in Russia and the UK, therefore, films are sources of data themselves. Data collection and data analysis are intertwined in representation analysis because performed approximately simultaneously.

“Spectre” (2015) is the twenty-fourth film in the James Bond franchise and the fourth one in the latest reboot of the British classic spy film with Daniel Craig's portrayal of James Bond. Critical response to the film was above average, an average rating of the film is 6.4/10 and an approval rating is 63% based on 326 reviews and 61% audience score based on 105,289 user ratings (Spectre, Rotten Tomatoes).

By tradition, historically established in spy genre, in particular largely shaped by James Bond character, the narrative is constructed around a male state agent fighting criminal organizations, encompassing the elements of action films, science fiction and political thrillers. Bond series films typically portray distinctly defined male hero-protagonist and evil male antagonist for him to defeat, while femininity is typically portrayed through the “damsel in distress” character, a “Bond girl”, who is a young, physically attractive love interest, helpmate, ally or an enemy of James Bond (Bayard, 2016). Bond girls act according to the narrative needs of Bond, evidencing the concept of objectification through unequal portrayal of women, presented as replaceable complement dependent on male characters, literally, in situations where they need to be rescued and metaphorically, as they are introduced to the storyline for the purpose of developing the male character.

Accordingly, both key opposing characters - the hero and the villain - are males in the “Spectre”, embodying the set of stereotypical traits of excessive masculinity. James Bond character is considered as an icon of masculinity, he embodies all typical masculine traits allocated for the analysis and listed in Table 4. We see him as physically strong, brave and assertive while fulfilling his duties as a spy and state agent often placed in extreme and dangerous conditions. Bond does serve the Service, however, he often shows himself as independent and self-serving disobeying M and putting his instincts above direct orders. He is characterized rather as an action hero then a state servant. Additionally, 007 is portrayed as unemotional, for example, when faced with loss, we do not see him grieving. Even though he still follows previous M's orders after her death and makes his primary mission to avenge her death, Bond does not openly show his emotions and stays indifferent when receiving her belongings. Bond is definitely a leader and perpetrator with numerous human lives depending on him and taken by him, enemies fear him and almost exclusively Bond alone takes down whole networks of criminal organizations. His pride and high social and professional status stem from being the best of his kind, even after the reference to agent 009 in the film, when Q shows highly technological and severely equipped vehicle intended for 009 presupposing his excellence over 007, Bond reassures his leading position by stealing the car.

The villains in this film series always feature qualities contrary to Bond's character. For example, Bond's loyalty to the kingdom is opposed to hatred of the state and aspirations of world domination or his brilliant and always successful reliance on improvisation contrasts with elaborated and detailed criminal planning inherent in almost every Bond film. Villains are opposed to Bond even through their physical appearance, often presented as hideous and abnormal.

Another key male character, Ernst Stavro Blofeld is a head of the worldwide criminal organization SPECTRE and archenemy of James Bond in the “Spectre”. Similar to Bond, he exhibits a range of masculine traits, described as extremely intelligent and highly resourceful, he uses psychological warfare as his main asset, allowing him to imprison and torture Bond. Blofeld managed to establish the most powerful criminal organization SPECTRE using his skills of intimidation and deterrence staying in the shadows until the last moment. Blofeld is a strong leader having SPECTRE under undeniable totalitarian control, asserting his power through cruel punishment of those disloyal to him. Moreover, Blofeld is in total control of his emotions, even in the end, when faced with defeat, he remains insidiously calm and confident. The fierce character and powerful position of the villain is established since the very beginning of the film in one of the first scenes through extensive fear inspired by him during the meeting of the most violent and powerful men with criminal connections chaired by Blofeld himself. It is worthwhile to note another aspect of this scene illustrating gender proportion on screen: among attendants of this meeting of most powerful and influential criminal masterminds - only one out of nine leading participants was female. The key Bond Girl in “Spectre” is Dr. Madeleine Swann. Even before meeting each other, Bond uses Dr. Swann as a weakness of her farther, doomed to death by the SPECTRE, promising to protect her in exchange for information from the organization, while reasserting his hyper masculinity and demonstrating her hyper femininity - as weakness and in need of assistance and protection from the very introduction. Similar to all Bond girls, Dr. Swann is essential to Bond's mission and ends up involved in romantic relations with him. She is young, physically attractive and demonstrates typical feminine traits: as already mentioned Dr. Swann is from the very beginning placed in the position dependent on Bond and unable to survive on her own. At first presented as confident and serene, later in the story, her emotional trauma and distress is revealed when she is forced to be a witness of her father's death.

Noticeably, Dr. Madeleine Swann also portrays a number of typically masculine traits, she is presented as proactive and a decision-maker, for example, she is the one who informs and leads Bond to the SPECTRE organization. She is financially independent educated psychologist with a prestigious career, Swann also demonstrates physical strength through advanced combat and weapon skills. She even rescues Bond by shooting the villain. Initially, Dr. Swann holds distance with Bond and even demeans his authority. Nevertheless, in the end such behavior is presented as another challenge for Bond to successfully surmount. Overall, even holding a certain power, Dr. Madeleine Swann appear in the role of “a damsel in distress rescued by James Bond”, when she is kidnapped by the villain, confirming initially established unequal gender power relations. Despite the fact that in the end of the film, Bond and Madeleine drive off together, there is no guarantee of further development of Madeleine's character as almost no Bond girl is featured in more than one films, which is a clear illustration of disposability of the key female character (Bayard, 2016).

Almost every character of importance to the narrative are males, such as Gareth Mallory or “M”, the head of Secret Intelligence Service, who gives orders and assigns missions to James Bond, therefore is in the position of position of great authority, is male. M in the “Spectre” portrayed by Ralph Fiennes is described as highly intelligent, loyal and brave evidently from his rich history of military service. At the same time he is alienated, cynical and often derisive. Therefore, a number of masculine traits can be traced in the M's character. It is worth mentioning that in two previous James Bond films M's position was held by a woman. In turn, she was presented as indifferent and rough, sending agents to certain death, and referred to as "the evil queen of numbers" for relying on statistical indicators rather than intuition. Therefore, even portrayed by a woman the character clearly displays masculine traits. However, unlike other female characters in the franchise, M is older, more powerful and in a highest place of authority, challenging imposed age- and gender roles. She even condemns Bond as a representative of patriarchal society calling him “a sexist and misogynist dinosaur” Broccoli, B. (Producer), & Campbell, M. (Director). (1995). GoldenEye [Motion picture]. UK&USA: Eon Productions Ltd., United Artists.. However, in the film previous to “Spectre” M's character gradually loses her position of power and is perceived as too elderly and incapable to properly manage Secret Service, implying gender stereotype of men being supposedly more capable, detracting women's abilities. In addition, by the end of the film M loses not only her position and power, but also her life when Bond fails to save her, like other female characters she end up being dependent on Bond, is shown as weak and fearful and finally becomes victim of male violence. Consequently, her position transfers to presumably more qualified and stronger male successor, again, putting men into the highest position of power and reflecting the misogynist nature of male superiority.

The Quartermaster or “Q”, the head of Research and Development Division responsible for all the gadgets, weapons and vehicles used by Bond, is male. However, Q is not described by typical masculine traits: he is physically weak, submissive to Bond demands, fearful of physical violence and loss of his career; he is portrayed as a follower, literally, following Bond in another country despite the probable negative consequences. He shows weakness when confronted with direct violence, unlike Bond he tries to always follow the protocol in fears of losing his accomplishments. He also adjusts to Bond's needs and in “Spectre” despite being initially headquarters agent he is forced to work in the field and actively participate in Bond affairs. Notably, the character of highly intelligent tech-savvy expert was portrayed by men in all 24 Bond films. It is interesting to note that in reality current "real-life-Q" of Britain's Secret Intelligence Service is a woman (Telegraph Reporters, 2017). This can be viewed as an example of distortion of reality and enforcement of gender stereotypes including science aptitude of men and women, intellectual abilities and the prospects of succeeding in the field of technology and innovations, enhancing especially young girls' insecurities concerning math abilities in particular and intellectual predispositions in general.

Another female appearing in “Spectre” is familiar to Bond franchise character of Miss Moneypenny portrayed by Naomie Harris - the first women of color to play Moneypenny. A physically attractive young woman who was previously a field agent, currently holding a position of M's secretary. She is not considered as “Bond girl” for having exclusively professional relations with Bond, except engaging in flirtatious dialogues throughout the film. Shown in previous film as active, capable, strong and highly qualified field agent directly assisting Bond during missions, in “Spectre” Moneypenny does not get to show her full professional potential. Her role is reduced to small demanding secretary position, performing traditionally feminine assisting duties, supporting male characters, M and Bond in particular, and formally subordinated to them.

There were also two roles of minor significance portrayed by women in “Spectre”. First, a young woman accompanying Bond in the opening scene, serving as a cover tool to divert attention if needed, having a significance of a mask covering Bond's face in the same scene. Second, the character of the widow of an attacker killed by Bond in the same opening scene. Bond sentences her to death by killing her husband, then saves her from assassins and seduces her, acquiring information significant to completion of his mission. The purpose of both these characters is to reassert Bond's masculine authority through the powerlessness of female characters.

Overall, “Spectre” demonstrates portrayal of typical gender traits by male and female characters, transmitting gender stereotypes and reinforcing gender inequalities. Women in Bond film are objectified and their whole existence serves the purpose of supporting and confirming Bond's heroic masculinity through stereotypically weak and dependent feminine characters.

Paddington

Going Vertical/Движение вверх (2017) is a sports drama based on the historic victory of USSR basketball team over the US team during the 1972 Olympics in Munich. According to Russian leading Internet platform about cinema, the film received 85% positive critic's reviews based on 20 reviews and 8.2/10 film rating based on 73 605 user ratings (Going Vertical, Kinopoisk).

Two minor supporting roles are depicted by women: the coach's wife and one of the players fiancй. These two roles are portrayed through typical feminine traits. The wife is introduced as she instructs her husband before a meeting with the sports committee which has the authority to appoint him as the new trainer of the USSR national basketball team. In this position, she sees the opportunity to afford an expensive surgery for their sun. She is shown as caring and emotional, but incapable and dependable. She does not get to decide anything; all decisions are made by the husband, for example, to spend all the money saved for their son's operation on treatment of the injured player instead. She is depicted through despair and inability, for instance, the scene of a phone conversation where she informs her husband that they have been refused the permission to leave the country for the operation. Here she is depicted as vulnerable and dependable not only on a male individual but on a patriarchal structure represented by the Soviet government.

The second supporting female character is the fiancй of one of the leading players, the one who brings victory to the team in the end. The young woman is in sports herself, she is part of the female national team. However, her main aspiration is shown to be not to win a gold medal but to get married. She complains to her fiancй, that she would not be allowed to get married, as all of the other girls from the team, highlighting typical feminine traits. First, the women's team is mentioned only in referral of aspiration to get married. Second, it demonstrates women's dependability on patriarchal structures in the face of the sport committee, which consists of 8 males, and the coach of the women's team in particular, who is also a man.

As for the leading cast of male characters, the main emphasis is made on the dynamics between the coach and the team as well as between the coach and the sport committee, all of which are exclusively male. Female characters in these dynamics are present as officials' secretaries or player's wives- it is not even noteworthy to specify whose wife they are, they are just an amorphous image of wives. Moreover, the male team seems not to have a problem with marriage and does not have to get a permission for it. All the male characters are mostly portrayed through typical masculine traits. The national team consists of the strongest, fastest athletes who compete even among each other. They all see themselves as leaders and want to dominate in the game, which interferes with the team spirit at the beginning of the film, especially with the two best players distancing themselves from the others, another masculine trait. The coach, as a father figure in the position of authority manages to bring them together and lead the team to the victory. However, there are two scenes showing man emotional, the first, of a leading player crying after the historic victory, and the second of a coach getting emotional after the team gives him their bonuses for his son's operation. But in general, men are not allowed to show weakness, the leading player with the knee problems finds solution in painkillers and continues to play and lead despite the pain. Another player who was diagnosed with a fatal illness returns to the game and is called a hero after bringing victory to the team and the country.

Overall, the film is a celebration of traditional gender roles. Man being portrayed as heroes and staying strong no matter what and women being portrayed through their dependency on men and exclusively supporting roles.

Viking/Викинг

Viking/Викинг (2016) is a historical film based on events of the internecine war between heirs to the throne of ancient Russia during early middle ages. The film received only 55% positive critic's reviews based on 11 reviews and 4.6/10 film rating based on 55 383 user ratings (Viking, Kinopoisk).

The plot revolves around Prince Vladimir and his rise to power. Main characters are all warriors fighting in the internecine war. They are all males portrayed through typical masculine traits: physically strong, aggressive and unemotional violently killing each other. The main character, Vladimir, is also enforcing gender stereotypes - he is a self-serving leader, a perpetrator, asserting his power throughout the film.

There are two supporting female characters also enforcing stereotypical gender roles. The first, a character of Rogneda, introduced as a daughter of a ruler who suggests her to Vladimir hoping to conclude a contract with him through an arranged marriage. Therefore, since the beginning she has authority even in making decisions about her own life. When she refuses to enter the marriage and insults Vladimir, he takes the city by force and rapes her as a part of a ritual; asserting his victory. This female character is not only portrayed as an object of implementing the treaty between men, but also violence over her is treated as a manifestation of man's victory. Further, she has only one chance to survive, to become Vladimir's wife - this is portrayed in film as he takes pity on her and decides to take her as his wife, the way protecting her from his warriors. Even further, she does not hold anything against her perpetrator, falls in love with him and becomes his greatest supporter, ready to kill anyone including herself and her unborn child for him. Since the beginning, Rogneda is portrayed as a victim, she is shown incapable, highly emotional, and weak. She has no decision-making authority about her own life and is dependable first on her father then on her perpetrator and husband.

The second supporting female character is Irina, the wife of Vladimir's brother and enemy Jaropolk. She is also introduced to the plot as a victim, taken prisoner by Vladimir's warriors. She is used as a weakness of Jaropolk, leading to his death. Moreover, when discussing to use her as a bait to lure Jaropolk, the emphasis is made not on her life but on her being pregnant. It seems like she herself as a person has no value at all. Therefore, she is also portrayed completely incapable and subordinated to men. Moreover, she also does not perceive Vladimir as a perpetrator and does not blame him for her husband's death or her imprisonment and falls in love with him, too. Such behavior of both female characters absolves Vladimir from any responsibilities for his violent deeds, therefore, normalizes violence against women.

Overall, such portrayal puts women in initially lower position than men. There is no women in the film equal in power or authority to men. They are treated as the weaknesses of men, bargain subjects, supporters of men, objects of violence, carriers of children but not as independent human beings capable of anything not related to men or children.

The Three Bogatyrs: Horse Course/Три богатыря: ход конем

The Three Bogatyrs: Horse Course/Три богатыря: ход конем (2015) is an animated film based on the legends about adventures of three Russian epic heroes: Alyosha Popovich, Dobrynya Nikitich and Ilya Muromets. The film received only 55% positive critic's reviews based on 43 reviews and 5.7/10 film rating based on 19 784 user ratings (The Three Bogatyrs: Horse Course, Kinopoisk).

The three main characters are based on hero characters from medieval Slavic legends about elite warriors. They are described by enormous strength and bravery, fearlessly defending their homeland and religion from foreign enemies and beasts. Bogatyrs represent the essence of Russian masculinity. Even now in Russian language the word “bogatyr” is used in referral to a physically strong man, athlete or a hero. Even though the animated film modernizes traditional characters and uses satirical elements in the plot to caricature the presented reality, the bogatyrs retain traditional masculine traits, being powerful, righteous, confident and fearless, constantly fighting evil, while always staying on the side of the good.

Another male character - Prince of Kiev who rules the Kievan Rus and gives orders to the heroes - as part of the satire is portrayed as weak, greedy and dependable on bogatyrs' power. However, neither bogatyrs noк common folk never question his authority and the Prince remains in the position of highest power failing to recognize his mistakes or incompetence.

As for the female characters, there are three minor characters - the bogatyrs' wives, who appear briefly on the screen to support the heroes, when they return from another adventure. As the audience know from previous films, Alenushka, Ilya Muromets' wife, is a journalist, notable by her intelligence and wit, however failing to prove herself in any way in the film. Nastasya Philippovna, Dobrynya Nikitich's wife, is the strongest one, also deprived of the opportunity to use her force in the film. And Alyosha Popovich's wife Lyubava - is also depicted through stereotypical gender roles - involved in housework, dependable on Alyosha, constantly repeating that “there is nothing to worry about, Alyosha will come up with a plan”.

Therefore, the children's animated film “The Three Bogatyrs: Horse Course” is portraying characters through typical gender traits, describing men as powerful and fearless, remaining in power even if weak and dependable. And women by default stay subordinated to men even if strong and intelligent, supporting the real heroes in their adventures, waiting at home for their bogatyrs and always ready to be saved.

Viy/Вий

Viy/Вий (2014) is a fantasy film based on the novel by Nikolai Gogol. The film received 51% positive reviews based on 290 reviews and 5.6/10 film rating based on 46 903 user ratings (Viy, Kinopoisk).

The film narrates the adventures of Jonathan Green - an English cartographer and scientist. During his expedition through Eurasia he strays from the intended path and finds himself in a small village on the territory of Western Ukraine. From the locals he learns that the village is cursed and full of witches and demons. Jonathan Green is a typical male character traditional to the fantasy genre. He is highly intelligent and at the same time physically strong and courageous, heading on a dangerous journey, defeating monsters on the way and saving damsels in distress. He remains skeptical about the mystical stories of the locals and reveals the truth denouncing the priest behind all the mysterious events, saves the girl and continues his expedition ready for the adventure.

The locals with any significance to the plot are all males, except three minor roles and are portrayed as stereotypical Russian villagers - superstitious, narrow-minded and always drunk. Throughout the film, they retell each other fables imposed on them by the priest, fight each other and drink. The film creates an impression of two-hour commercial of alcohol, especially when in the end we see the name of a famous alcohol brand on the screen.

The main villain is the priest, who rapes and kills the daughter of the local centurion, and creates the legend around it. Using his authority and deceiving tricks he makes the locals believe that the girl was enticed by the devil and turned into a witch, ready to kill anyone who approaches her. When revealing his deeds, the priest blames the victim and holds the girl entirely accountable for the harm inflicted on her saying that “a sinner is not the one who is tempted but the one who tempts”. Throughout the film the phrase “all women are witches” is repeatedly articulated by almost all characters. Even after revealing that the killed daughter of the centurion never really was a witch, the phrase is confirmed even by the protagonist, who was initially skeptical towards any mysterious.

The stereotype of the witch is viewed as the ultimate representation of misogyny and fear of female deviance. The discourse around the manhunt on witches is linked to gendered structures of power, reflects ideals of masculinity and shapes negative female stereotypes. Accordingly, in the film women are presented as easier targets for the devil due to their inconstancy, lustfulness and vanity, which can be exploited by the devil (Goncalves, 1998). In particular, there are three female characters: Pannochka - the priest's victim, further depicted as a witch; her friend Nastusya, who found her friend dying and was distraught by it, for which she was also called a witch and almost killed by the locals ; and the conventional witch character - an old woman, constantly grumbling and hating on the locals. Female characters are again depicted as weak and incapable - Pannochka could not save herself from the priest in reality and from the devil in the local people's perception, as well as Nastusya, who was impressionable to the loss of reason and almost killed by the locals and not able to outweigh the words of a man slandering her. In general, female characters exist for the purpose of the development and support of the leading male characters, for them to express themselves as heroes or villains.

Overall, such portrayal of gender inequality contributes to establishment and reinforcement of such concepts as victim blaming, rape culture, sexism and misogyny. Depicted through stereotypes, women and man became ensnared in the frames of social expectations and roles.

Stalingrad/ Сталинград

Stalingrad/ Сталинград (2013) is a war drama retelling one of the event of the turning battle of Stalingrad during World War II. The film received 51% positive reviews based on 541 reviews and 5.7/10 film rating based on 67 887 user ratings (Stalingrad, Kinopoisk).

The plot of the film is based on the defense of a strategically important house by a group of soldiers separated from their units. There are 9 characters significant to the plot - 7 men and 2 women. Both genders are portrayed through typical gender traits. Males - 7 soldiers and officers - are conceived as cruel, reserved and brutal - according to the narrator the war made them like this. Any sign of weakness or even non-heroic behavior is regarded as a betrayal worthy of death. Hence, the leader of the group of Russian soldiers captain Gromov, orders to shoot a soldier who refuses to participate in a lethal operation and almost kills a soldier blaming him for his inability to single-handedly recapture a strategically important house from a whole battalion of Germans. Thus, demanding from them the impossible and demonstrating the essence of the concept of “toxic masculinity”, which refers to expected norms of masculine behavior leading to harm foremost to themselves and to society in general (Bird, 1996). Accordingly, a German officer blames his subordinate of a failed attempt to take the house and questions his masculinity and threatens him with death. In addition, his emotional attachment to a woman is treated as a weakness and a betrayal.

Captain Gromov is described as a “professional hero” based on the number of battles he participated in, men he killed and wounds he received. Accordingly, other members of the group are assessed by him by the extent of their brutality and the fearlessness before death. This masculine group is diluted by a female character - Katya - who lived in the house before it became a strategic point and refused to leave after. She is portrayed through typical feminine traits - timid, diffident and shy - for that she is called by one of the soldiers as “blissful, weak-minded in general, ready to be taken and exploited”. She is also portrayed as a caretaker, for instance, nurturing wounded soldiers and bringing water for everyone. Initially introduced as a weakness and a liability for the group, Katya later becomes dear to everyone and is getting blamed by Gromov. He tries to make her leave the house as they will not be able to protect her, and her death can break the soldiers because they are fighting not for the country anymore but for her. Therefore, she is still treated as a liability in need of protection and her character exists for the purpose of motivation and inspiration of male characters.

Another female character - Masha - is one of the city dwellers trying to survive in the slums. She gets n the attention of the German officer for her resemblance with his dead wife. After being raped by him she becomes a pariah, blamed and abused by both sides: by other Russian survivors and soldiers and by the German -officer himself and his superior. The officer does not recognize his fault saying “I came here as a soldier and you made me a beast” - promoting victim blaming. Moreover, when all the citizens are moved by the Germans, Masha choses to stay with the offender in order to survive and sees in him her savior. Such portrayal normalizes violence against women, taking the blame off the perpetrator. Moreover, the officer's superior is blaming her for “turning his best officer into a brainless idiot”, which again moves the blame onto the victim. Finally, she is blamed by her own compatriots and is killed by one of them for the relation with the enemy regarded as betrayal.