Us publishing as a cultural phenomenon: history, current realities and prospects

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Us publishing as a cultural phenomenon: history, current realities and prospects

I.V. Zhyvohliadova, PhD., Assosiate Professor Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv

S.V. Puzyrko, Student, Cultural Studies Master's Program Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv

The article analyses the specifics of the formation of the American publishing system in the context of the incipience of national culture and statehood. It highlights the importance of print production as an important component of the overall system for the formation and maintenance of the original face of the United States - both in the early stages of the formation of the state and culture, as well as in modern realities, complicated by the Covid pandemic situation. The US publishing system is at the forefront of technological changes that affect both American and world reading and book culture: not only the diversity and democratisa- tion of the form of consumer culture, but also the quality of the media sphere as a special space for the life of a modern person. The experience of the American book market, the US publishing industry is considered, demonstrating the importance of publishing as a meaningful tool for socialisation and inculturation, its significant influence on the formation of national traditions of "bookishness", reading culture, and on the level of the general cultural education of the nation.

Keywords: national culture, American book market, US publishing production, book culture, printed book, cultural practice, mediasphere.

І.В. Живоглядова, канд. філос. наук, доц.

Київський національний університет імені Тараса Шевченка,

С.В. Пузирко, студентка ОР "Магістр"

Філософський факультет

Київський національний університет імені Тараса Шевченка

ВИДАВНИЧА СПРАВА США ЯК КУЛЬТУРНИЙ ФЕНОМЕН: ІСТОРІЯ, СУЧАСНІ РЕАЛІЇ ТА ПЕРСПЕКТИВИ

У статті здійснюється аналіз специфіки процесу формування американської видавничої системи в контексті становлення національної культури і державності, висвітлення значення друкованого виробництва в якості важливої складової загальної системи формування і підтримки своєрідного обличчя США - як на перших етапах становлення держави і культури, так і в сучасних реаліях, ускладнених пандемічною ситуацією. Розглядається формування національної системи книжкової справи, її складність та різноманітність за типами видавничих підприємств (в залежності від типу власності) та за характером діяльності. Протягом всієї історії становлення і зміцнення США сформувалася система культурних практик, пов'язаних з книжковою культурою, зі створенням умов для розвитку її національного сегмента, забезпеченням відповідних інструментів і засобів його підтримки і розповсюдження.

Зазначається, що в сучасних реаліях, де домінують цифрові та електронні засоби масової інформації, друкована книга стає важливим актором в системі адвокації культури, зокрема екології медіа. Трансмедіальний світ поставив під сумнів цінність друкованої продукції, матеріальність книги як такої. Цифрова ера значно проблематизувала існування американської видавничої справи в її класичних формах. З одного боку, завдяки цифровому прогресу зміцнюються, поряд з великими видавництвами та міжнародними корпораціями, і маленькі підприємства. З іншого - книга перетворюється на комерційний продукт, розглядається в якості цифрової послуги.

Американський книжковий ринок, видавниче виробництво США, як свідчить історія американської культури, завжди були і є важливим елементом підтримки і розвитку національної культури. Цей досвід демонструє важливість видавничої справи як змістовного інструмента соціалізації та інкультураціїї, її суттєвий вплив на формування національних традицій "книжності", культури читання, на рівень загальної культурної освіченості нації

Висновується, що в умовах глобалізації, в реаліях пандемічної ситуації так само, як і в попередні періоди, видавнича система США знаходиться в авангарді технологічних змін, впливаючи як на американську, так і на світову читацьку і книжкову культуру - не тільки на різноманіття та демократизацію форм споживацької культури, але й на якість медіасфери як особливого простору життєдіяльності сучасної людини. Розвиток американської системи книговидання демонструє проблемні питання екології сучасної медіасфери і шляхи їх вирішення: покращення умов книговидання та книгорозповсюдження, збільшення різноманітності пропозицій на книжковому ринку, спрямування інноваційних технологій на просування культури активного читання.

Ключові слова: національна культура, американський книжковий ринок, видавниче виробництво США, книжкова культура, друкована книга, культурні практики, медіасфера.

Formulation of the problem

Present-day development processes of Ukrainian culture and statehood, the search of ways and forms of cultural and national selfawareness are actualising the researches which allow, based on the study of the other nations's and countries's experience, to optimise Ukrainian resources and cultural capital and its components. One of the most important element of social relations's space, national and cultural incipience and self-affirmation, their effective mechanism and method of support and development is a national publishing system, book publishing in particular. The realities of modern Ukrainian development of digital technologies, problems of national and state formations intensified discussions that question the importance of preserving the book culture in information society and how the ways of creating and sharing the book transforms, how much it affects the national and cultural incipience and self-affirmation processes. Thereby, Cultural Studies's research acquire the special relevance, which helps to study similar experience of other countries and thereafter allow to take into account not only positive achievements, but possible miscalculations as well. Therefore, the analysis of the specifics of the process of formation of the American publishing system in the context of national culture and statehood, highlighting the importance of print production as a key component of the overall system of formation and support of the US presentation: both in the early stages of state and culture development and modern realities, that are complicated by the Covid pandemic, are quite relevant for Cultural Studies and for the formation of the relevant cultural practices.

Indeed, the development of each country is impossible without the development of national publishing. Publishing plays an important role in the self-awareness of the nation, the formation of culture, spirituality and at the same time it is evidence of the national and cultural development of the people. It provides the consolidation and transmission of information in time and space as a textual and illustrative material, which today is the most common tool in this area [2]. Numerous media cannot compete with the book in these aspects, as they provide short-term and fragmentary information about the world around them. The book was and remains the most effective way of transmitting knowledge and ideas in their unity and integrity. Reading the book most actively contributes to a universal and fundamental picture of the world, the formation of a diverse worldview, deep beliefs, also stimulates human participation in society.

Analysis of research and publications

publishing cultural phenomenon history

Book publishing as a cultural phenomenon has been noticed by the scholars from the beginning of its occurrence. The development of book publishing in Ukraine is studied within the socio-philosophical and cultural studies analysis (O. Afonin, O. Bozhenko, O. Girnyak, R. Ivanchenko, O. Koval, N. Kuchyna, A. Pohribnyi). The separate economical aspects are thought over by etc. Bibliography researches on book publishing are presented in works of O. Afanasenko, H. Klyuchkovska, I. Kopystynska, M. Senchenko, V. Ryabyi, M. Tymoshyk, L. Shaiko etc.

The study of book and publishing development proclivity in USA in some periods of history, the book publishing as a phenomenon of American culture, the influence of the book on the mind and intellectual level of the society and on the practical everyday life is a subject of study of the following scholars: G. Unwin, E. Boehmer, J. Brass, A. Weedon, J. Wizalek, I. Gadd, A. Greco, J.N. Green, H. Italie, J. Curry, T. Quirk, S. Colclough, R. Kunstmann, E. Long, S. McVey, N. Maro, M. Moylan, M. Mondlin, E. Nawotka, P. Osnos, J. Roberts, P. Robinson, E. Rodgers, L. Stiles, T. Strypass, D. Tucker, M. Shatzkin, E. Shevlin, D. Sheenan etc.

Purpose of the article is a historical and cultural analysis of US book publishing as a socio-cultural phenomenon. The study on specifics of the process of American book publishing system formation in XIX-XX centuries, features of US modern book publishing development in XXI century will allow to identify its role in national, American and world cultures.

Exposition of the main material of the study. "The history of United States became an example of the possi-bilities for all mankind in field of cultural space and time creation. XVIII century in American history is the time of formation of the new big nation. The time of its origination occurs on a socio-economical upturn, caused by the devel-opment of bourgeois relations which affected all areas of colonial life" [1, p. 536, 543]. In the base of book development, on a territory of modern United States, was laid down the experience of book publishing from European countries. "But the literary development of the New World, saving a part of overall European cultural traditions and continued some artistic tendencies, on the other hand they stood out with their own distinctness. Because of the relative youth and primary artistic and aesthetic dependence from the spiritual traditions of the New World, the sources of colonial literature are connected mostly with the appearance and development of writing genres" [1, p. 541].

The spread of literacy among the population pf the British colonies in the North America stimulated the development of the book publishing. For example, in the state of Massachusetts, there was a regulation in 1647 approving of the opening of parish schools in all settlements of that British colony, with a population of more than 50 families. If in the beginning of its development book publishing sphere was oriented mainly on sharing of the preaching literature, then in the 18th century there are more secular genres available - novels, memoirs, political issues. From the most recents: The Declaration of Independence (1776) by T. Jefferson; Political pamphlet "Common Sense" by T. Paine (1776), a well as "Rights of Man" (1791) which was declared as the manifest of American democracy [8].

In the years leading up to the American Revolution of 1775-1783, the most common publications were newspapers and pamphlets. They were quickly printed, so became perfect for the rapid dissemination of short political news. As for the development of the book trade at that time, it had a traditional character. Bookstores pop up. Beginning in 1713, book auctions are proliferated, and by 1800 about 870 book auctions were held [5].

"The assertion of state independence necessarily presupposed the achievement of independence in the spiritual sphere, so that national self-consciousness was in active search for forms of self-expression. The remelting of European cultural traditions was combined with the desire to find their own face, original and unique" [1, p.546].

At that time, the main goal for the American book trade was to replace British imports of English-language books with their own editions. Because of this, many American printers felt that some kind of protection, similar to the British Bible patent, was needed. On January 10 1789, the New York printers sent a circular letter to all union representatives appealing for the protection or financial support of the American printed Bible. This was the first proposal for national cooperation in the book trade, but unfortunately during this period, it had the opposite effect. At first there were no American copies of the Bible at all, then it quickly turned into nine different official versions. In 1790, Congress passed a copyright law that protected books written by American citizens. Gradually, the basis for a non- monopolistic reissue was being created.

For years after 1783, books could be imported into the country and sold here for a cheaper price, than they could be printed in the US [5]. Reprinting did not justify itself, because the demand for books was small. Mostly imported were professional literature on the natural sciences, theology, and practical medicine along with novels in foreign languages. Most major libraries and many private collectors continued to order books from London. But almost every book that had a good sale or even a good response in England was later reprinted in America. The book market was dominated by aristocratic books, frivolity, sensuality, stiffness. Publishers quite often liked to release love or sensual miniature books, shaped them with an oval, heart, flower, etc. Due to small print runs, the exquisite design of the book was a luxury item.

At the beginning of the XIX century, on the background of the general economic, political and cultural upsurge of the country, as a result of the development of the territory of the West, the expansion of the geography of the use of the printing press began to actively increase the number of printed products, its subject matter expanded and differentiated. Book production was evenly subordinated to the production of periodicals. The corresponding specialisation of publishing enterprises began. The result is new, mostly cheap types of books [9]. The book assortment is expanding. The production of educational publications is increasing: textbooks and manuals on geography, medicine, history, philosophy, anthropology, jurisprudence, astronomy, geology, collections of spelling exercises. Monographs, historical documents, diplomatic correspondence, manuscripts are published, where questions of the state structure, the history of the United States are considered. The first books of the twenty-five-volume 'Library of American Biographies' series are being printed.

The development of the book business is best evidenced by the figures: if in 1798 there were 88 book publishers, printers and booksellers in Philadelphia, 56 in New York, 4 in Boston, then from 1820 to 1852 only in New York was registered 345, in Philadelphia - 198, in Boston - 147. Book business developed especially intensively in the West. The creation in Cincinnati by 1852 of 25 publishing firms was a kind of symbol of the strengthening of the West. New York became the largest centre of book business. The largest number of publishers was concentrated here and the largest publishing firms worked. In the first half of the 19th century the first professional associations appeared: the Boston Booksellers Association (1810), the Philadelphia Booksellers Company (1802), the American Booksellers Company (1802). All these associations were created on the model of European, primarily German book unions, and aimed at im-proving the quality of publications and maintaining a certain level of prices in the book market. Booksellers and book publishers are now emerging, which are still considered one of the most famous in the book business, in particular J.B. Lippincott & Co., Wiley & Putnam, Trueman & Smith, Harper & Co. The latter began its activity in 1817 by publishing the works of American and English prose writers and poets in the The Boy' s and Girl' s Library series [6].

Second half of the XIX century was the time of the formation of the main features of the book business in the United States. The technical revolution in typography (the inventions of W. Bullock, O. Mergenthaler), the use of European technical achievements in this area (raster printing, photomechanical methods of reproducing illustrations), along with the formation of the regulatory framework for copyright in America (adoption in 1891 of the Copyright law, the Catalog of Certificates for Copyright, the creation of the Copyright Bureau, whose task was to protect the rights of the author), ensured the development of national literature, the priority right to its publication. The number of publications of works by American authors slowly but steadily increased: from 729 titles in 1894 to 1278 in 1900 [6]. As a result of cultural and economic changes, large monopolistic publishing firms are being created, closely combined with industrial and banking capital. Regional book business centres are being formed - New York, Boston and Philadelphia. Thus, in New York, the largest and oldest American publishing houses - Harper & Co., D. Appleton & Company, Putnam & Sons, filled the national cultural space with the works of English and American authors, and series of fiction and popular science are published literature designed for a wide readership: "Selected School Library" (50 volumes of the best works of American and world literature), "New Almanacs", "History of Nations", "National Heroes". A series of specialised scientific and scientific journalism products are issued: "International Scientific Series", works by A. Hamilton, G. Washington, B. Franklin. Periodicals has also been also issued: Harper's Weekly, Harper's Magazine - one of the first illustrated magazines in the States, Harper's Bazaar; cheap editions of series of English and American fiction, travel notes, travel diaries, essays, publications such as Picturesque America, Picturesque Europe are massively printed [6].

Second place in the US publishing business belonged to Boston. Little, Brown & Company and Mansell Publishing worked here, publishing English and American fiction. In addition to historical works, they published cheap series of folk tales, book catalogs for libraries, collectors and booksellers, textbooks, court reports, almanacs, reference books, that is, ordinary products of a universal type. Mansell's edition was notable for its special design, quite unusual for the US book business. He was one of the first to publish literature on the history of the book business, European and North American, monographs on the largest publishers and booksellers. The total number of various editions issued by him from 1828 to 1870, in The Mansellian Library, was 2000 titles [9]. Since 1836, the publishing house "Lippincott & Co." has been operating in the third US book centre Philadelphia since 1836, which also published fiction and medical literature, various types of textbooks, dictionaries, and magazines. In 1875 the publishing house opened its branch in London.

New in the organisation of the book business in this period should be considered the emergence of specialisation. By the end of the 19th century specialised publishing houses concentrated mainly in New York City. D. Wiley worked here, publishing a scientific and technical book; D. Van Nostrand, who specialised in the publication of natural science, technical and military literature; the firm W. Wood & Co. issued reference books, encyclopaedias and journals on med-icine; O.Jude's Book Publishing was one of the first to publish books on agriculture. P.J. Kennedy & Sons, known since 1895 as the Publishing House of the Papal Throne, published theoretical and popular works on theology, various works (as well as fiction) by Catholic authors, and a series of textbooks for church schools. The following specialists specialised in the release of works of fiction: H.V. Carlston - translations of European authors, American satirical and popular novels; T. Crowell - prose and poetry [3].

The number of publications has been constantly increasing. From 1870 to 1899 the number of publications of books and pamphlets increased from 2602 to 6356 units, i.e. almost in 2.5 times. But in terms of the number of book pro-duction, the United States throughout the century lagged far behind the huge European states. For comparison, it can be noted that in the 70-90s the annual book production in Germany was 18 thousand, in France - 14 thousand.

The changes affected the structure of the book assortment. Gradually, fiction came to the fore. By 1900, the number of its publications reached to 35% of the total number of printed materials, where up to 90% in the 90s were works by American authors. The novels of H. James, S. Crane, M. Twain, W. Howells have been published. There were editions of the newest types of the novel, which determined the vector of direction that become fundamental for American literature: political, social. Along with the new works, the well-known works of E. Poe, H.W. Longfellow, H. Melville, J.F. Cooper, W. Irving and others. Cheap series of novels in thin covers have spread - the "dime novels", which contributed to the formation of "one hundred percent American" image. Each such series included up to 1000 issues [6]. The attention of many writers has focused on developing a uniquely American style, a way of expressing oneself distinct from European models, through political engagement, satire, interest in the natural world, or the use of regional dialects and idioms. The adventure stories of James Fenimore Cooper, the stories and poems of Edgar Allan Poe, the poetry of Walt Whitman, the stories of Washington Irving, the works of Mark Twain laid the foundation for the American style of artistic speech.

Along with fiction from the middle of the 19th century the output of scientific publications on medicine, history, philosophy, economics, jurisprudence, natural, exact and technical sciences continues to increase. The publication of economic literature developed especially intensively. The output of publications about economy from 1869 to 1900 increased by 9 times. It was common for an American publishing house to publish legal literature [3]. Sociological works are published, in particular, the first sociological monograph in the United States - R. Dugdale published his findings in 1877 as "The Jukes: A Study of Crime, Pauperism, Disease, and Heredity". Also, there is the 16-volume "New American Encyclopaedia" being published.

New centres of book business appeared in the first half of the 20th century - Chicago, Indianapolis, Baltimore and Detroit. Currently, local (regional) and university publishing houses are intensively developing. The number of profes-sional associations is growing: American Publishing Association (1900 - 1914), National Association of Book Publishers (1920 - 1934), Book Publishing Bureau (1934 - 1946), Institute for Publishers of Educational Literature (since 1942), American Committee of Book Publishers (since 1946). In the mid-1920s, a new form of book distribution arose - "book clubs".

In the first half of the XX century, American publishers and booksellers entered the world book market. Book ex-ports were constantly increasing until the end of the first half of the 20th century accounted for 40% of the total sales of books, and all major book publishers and booksellers have opened offices in different countries [4]. These processes intensified after the Second World War. For example, McGrow-Hill has set up a network of foreign companies in thirteen countries. Exports included both the direct export of books from the country and the sale of products of foreign branches of US publishing companies. Exports to the Scandinavian countries, Canada, Australia, England, Japan, Latin America, Africa, and Asia grew steadily, and since the second half of the 1970s have accounted for 10% of total domestic book circulation each year. In order to promote the spread of American printed materials, special institutions were established, such as the Asian Foundation, the Government Committee for International Books and Library Programs.

The established national system of book business was complex. It varied in the types of publishing companies (de-pending on the type of ownership) and the nature of the activity. With this diversity, there was no national coordination centre. Since the early 1960s, there have been about 6,500 commercial, government, university, and other publishing houses in the United States each year. And in the first half of the 90's there were from 25 to 27 thousand publishing com-panies. About 100-200 new publishing houses appeared every month [7]. Among them are a large number of "small" publishing houses. Their products were of high quality.

The book space was also expanding due to the widespread use of cheap types of publications: "pocket book", "paperback", mass series of books on paper covers, pocket books in paperback, such as "comics" and "book digests", a special kind of publications with a movable mechanical cover, those books could be disassembled, removed or replaced. Paperback publishing is becoming a popular branch of book production and one of the main types of book production in the United States. In the 90's the production of "electronic books" (books on CDs) developed rapidly. This contributed to the democratisation of the book production market and improved the availability of legal, economic, reference, educational literature. Large multiindustry publishers with many years of experience, such as Simon & Schuster, McGrow-Hill Co., John Wiley & Son, Van Nostrand and Harcourt Brace & Company, continued to operate actively. In the forties of XX century new, no less famous, actors of the book and publishing space - Academic Press and Pergamon Press. Almost all of them opened their branches in countries of different continents, gradually becoming international publishers. Based on a careful study of reader demand, scientific, technical and humanitarian literature, textbooks and works of art, as well as a significant amount of religious literature were published at a rapid pace. It was published by both commercial and numerous publishers owned by church organisations.

Along with the independent small firms that distributed paperback, there was a significant increase in the number of wholesale firms, the large bookstores ("Borders", "Barnes & Noble", "Crown Books", "Books-A-Million" etc.). The nationwide Pubnet TV ordering system was being established, through which almost 90% of the book range has passed. Large shopping malls, which are opening en masse around the cities, provided space for bookstores. The number of book clubs for readers of different ages continues to grow. Many clubs were supported by publishers (for example, Doubleday & Co. had a "Literary Guild" book club with about one million members). A special place in the development of American book business, education and culture was and is occupied by government publishing organisations. Among them is the "US Government Publishing House", which is the largest in the book world.

The expansion of American book and publishing culture continued due to the increase in specialised publishing houses and their related products. Thus, the world-famous American-British company "Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.", the publishing house Ross Publishing, in addition to reference books intended for scientists, published in various languages guides for the mass reader, including microfilms, encyclopaedias, dictionaries. There were publishing houses specialising in the publication of bibliographic literature, literature on library science.

In the second half of the XX century, the American book market was enriched by publications designed for members of various ethnic groups living in the United States and abroad. Literature was being published in more than 40 languages. Special publishers were organised: Indian Press, Black Academic Press, Black Star Publisher and Afro-American Publishing. In the late XX century, so- called "multicultural literature" emerged amid the rise of American book culture. Its authors such as Toni Morrison, Louise Erdrich and Jhumpa Lahiri studied racial issues, the culture of Native Americans, their traditions, language, and value systems in artistic and journalistic terms.

The modern space where publishing takes place is increasingly controlled by large corporations - Amazon, Apple, Google, whose profits are growing more outside of the print book, rather than at its expense.

A large space of media practices related to reading culture is being formed. There is a new American concept of "hybrid book". It provides, in addition to the printed book, additional material that can be accessed using modern electronic mobile devices (smartphones, for example). Literary texts are published in various media formats. Written texts compete with their film adaptations, video games and entertainment attractions featuring their characters. Literary contributions (BookTubers, for example) have received social recognition. Video reviews of books, distribution of critical reviews, challenges, sharing their emotional experiences about books they read, their content and design - all these new forms of communication have helped to maintain a culture of reading, involving the younger generation. Manufacturers of such products, having the ability to monitor the readership, control the quantity and quality of consumption. This extremely exacerbates the problem of cultural significance and the future of the book, the gains and losses from the use of digital technology for actors in the literary world - from authors, readers to publishers.

Since 2020, the "pandemic period", publishing world has become even more complex and ambiguous for American book printing. On the one hand - there is an increasing of readership, it has become even more diverse. Demand for literature - fiction, science and journalism - grew rapidly. This stimulates the expansion of the market for its sales and distribution services. At the same time, the massive increase in demand for books in electronic format, declining sales of printed products in bookstores, reducing the number of library visitors, the transition of educational institutions to online format - all this directly affected the state of printed book production.

Traditionally printed products and independent retailers are adapting to new conditions, looking in this situation for forms and mechanisms to maintain their competitiveness. As a result, the sales of printed books, online and telephone orders are increasing significantly. We offer delivery of books to the customer directly from the warehouse. If there are no necessary books there, their copies are ordered for the client from other book distribution companies.

Conclusion

In nowadays's realities which are dominated by digital and electronic media, the printed book is becoming an important actor in the system of advocacy of culture, in particular the environment of the media.

Throughout the history of the formation and strengthening of the United States, a system of cultural practices related to book culture has been formed, creating the conditions for the development of its national segment, providing appropriate tools and means to support and disseminate it.

The trans-media world has questioned the value of printed materials, the materiality of the book as such. The digital age has significantly questioned the existence of American publishing in its classical forms. On the one hand, digital progress is strengthening small businesses, along with large publishers and international corporations. On the other hand, the book becomes a commercial product, considered a digital service.

According to the history of American culture, the American book market, the publishing industry of the United States has always been and is now an important element in the support and development of national culture. This experience demonstrates the importance of publishing as a meaningful tool of socialisation and inculturation, its significant impact on the formation of national traditions of "bookishness", reading culture, the level of general cultural education of the nation.

In the context of globalisation, in the realities of the Covid pandemic situation, as in previous periods, the US publishing system is at the forefront of technological change, affecting both American and global reading and book culture: not only the diversity and democratisation of consumer culture, but and the quality of the media sphere as a special space of life of modern man. The development of the American book publishing system demonstrates the problematic issues of the ecology of the modern media sphere and ways to solve them: improving the conditions of book publishing and book distribution, increasing the variety of offers in the book market, directing innovative technologies to promote active reading culture.

СПИСОК ВИКОРИСТАНИХ ДЖЕРЕЛ

1. Живоглядова І. В., Павлова О. Ю. Європейсько-північноамериканська культура: від модерну до постмодерну / І. Живоглядова, O. Павлова // Культурологія: підручник для студентів вищих навчальних закладів / кол. авторів; за ред. А. Є. Конверськогою - Харків: Фоліо, 2013. - С. 536-591

2. Кучина Н. І. Розвиток книговидавничої справи в незалежній Україні: автореф. дис. канд. іст. наук / Н. І. Кучина; Київ. нац. ун-т. культури і мистецтв. - К., 2007. - 20 с.

3. McVey, S. Nineteenth Century America / S. McVey // The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 421(1), 1975. - P. 67-79.

4. Osnos, P. How Book Publishing Has Changed Since 1984 / P. Osnos // The Atlantic, 2020. Retrieved from https://www.theatlantic.com/ entertainment/archive/2011/04/how-book-publishing-has-changed-since-1984/ 237184/

5. Roberts, J., Robinson, P., Gadd, I., Colclough, S., Weedon, A. and Shevlin, E. The History Of The Book In The West / J. Roberts, P. Robinson,

I. Gadd, S. Colclough, A. Weedon, and E. Shevlin / Vol. ІІІ. - Farnham: Ashgate, 2010. - 590 p.

6. Roberts, J., Robinson, P., Gadd, I., Colclough, S., Weedon, A. and Shevlin, E. The History Of The Book In The West / J. Roberts, P. Robinson,

I. Gadd, S. Colclough, A. Weedon, and E. Shevlin / Vol. IV. - Farnham: Ashgate, 2010. - 554 p.

7. Roberts, J., Robinson, P., Gadd, I., Colclough, S., Weedon, A. and Shevlin, E. The History Of The Book In The West / J. Roberts, P. Robinson,

I. Gadd, S. Colclough, A. Weedon, and E. Shevlin / Vol. V. - Farnham: Ashgate, 2010. - 2900 p.

8. Tucker, D., Unwin, G. and Unwin, P. History Of Publishing Forms, Development, & Facts / D. Tucker, G. Unwin, and P. Unwin // Encyclopedia Britannica, 2020. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/topic/publishing

9. Quirk, T., Scharnhorst, G. American History Through Literature, 1870-1920 / T. Quirk, G. Scharnhorst. - Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, Thomson Gale, 2006. - 1500 p.

REFERENCES

1. Zhyvohliadova, I. and Pavlova, O. (2013). Yevropeisko- pivnichnoamerykanska kultura: vid modernu do postmodernu [European- North American culture: from modern to postmodern].In Kulturolohiia: pidruchnyk dlia studentiv vyshchykh navchalnykh zakladiv. Kharkiv, Folio, 536-591. (In Ukrainian).

2. Kuchyna, N. (2007). Rozvytok knyhovydavnychoi spravy v nezalezhnii Ukraini [Development of book publishing in independent Ukraine]. tyiv, Kyiv. nats. un-t. kultury i mystetstv. (In Ukrainian).

3. McVey, S. (1975). Nineteenth Century America. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 421(1), 67-79.

4. Osnos, P. (2020). How Book Publishing Has Changed Since 1984. The Atlantic. Retrieved from https://www.theatlantic.com/ entertainment/ archive/ 2011/ 04/how-book-publishing-has-changed-since-1984/237184/

5. Roberts, J., Robinson, P., Gadd, I., Colclough, S., Weedon, A. and Shevlin, E. (2010).The History Of The Book In The West. Vol. ІІІ. Farnham, Ashgate.

6. Roberts, J., Robinson, P., Gadd, I., Colclough, S., Weedon, A. and Shevlin, E. (2010).The History Of The Book In The West. Vol. IV. Farnham, Ashgate.

7. Roberts, J., Robinson, P., Gadd, I., Colclough, S., Weedon, A. and Shevlin, E. (2010).The History Of The Book In The West. Vol. V. Farnham, Ashgate.

8. Tucker, D., Unwin, G. and Unwin, P. (2020). History Of Publishing Forms, Development, & Facts. Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/topic/publishing

9. Quirk, T., Scharnhorst, G. (2006). American History Through Literature, 1870-1920. Detroit, Charles Scribner's Sons, Thomson Gale.

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