The process of acquiring vocabulary

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Contents

Introduction

1. How is Vocabulary learned

1.1 What is vocabulary

1.2 How important is vocabulary

1.3 Conveying the meaning

1.4 Seven steps to vocabulary learning

1.5 How words are remembered

1.6 Revising vocabulary

1.7 How important is the student's motivation

2. Techniques of teaching

2.1 Techniques of teaching

2.2 Categorization

2.3 Semantic Feature Analysis

2.4 Making Analogies

2.5 Structural Analysis

2.6 Use of the Dictionary

2.7 Special Types of Vocabulary Terms

Conclusion

List of literature

Introduction

This coursework presents the process of acquiring vocabulary. The reason I've chosen this theme is the wish to know more about developing vocabulary and how to make the lesson more interesting and useful at the same time. Also I'm interested in finding more successful methods of learning and memorizing words. There are the following questions which in my opinion should be considered:

· What is vocabulary?

· How important is vocabulary?

· How words are remembered?

· Why do we forget words?

· What kind of mistakes do learners make?

· What techniques are used in learning and teaching vocabulary?

· What methods are used and how they work?

Not all of these methods presented here is any brand new discovery for the language teacher. The vast majority of teachers used to practice most of them in his/her work, there's only a try to add something new to well known and allegedly usual techniques (like note-taking), to study them deeper and show more interesting and useful side of them. Perhaps some teachers can discover something new in my coursework and I would be very grateful to them if they would be inspired to apply them!

1. How is Vocabulary learned

1.1 What is vocabulary

What is vocabulary? The word vocabulary means all the words of a language and what they mean. A person's vocabulary consists of all words he/she can use and understand. Vocabulary can be split into two types: receptive vocabulary and expressive vocabulary. Receptive vocabulary consists of the words which a person understands when he/she hears or reads them. Expressive vocabulary consists of the words the person uses when she/he speaks.

Why teach vocabulary?

§ Vocabulary building is important in developing literacy.

§ Vocabulary has a direct affect on comprehension.

§ Knowing vocabulary words is a key to reading comprehension.

The reasons why these individuals have weak vocabularies are often complex and overlapping, but here are a few of the common reasons for weak vocabularies. The person 1) lives in an environment where higher level vocabularies are not used, 2) has a lower education level because the person either did not complete school or the education was of poor quality, 3) attended special education classes in which lower level vocabulary was used in class and in textbooks, 4) does not read much or has a reading problem, 5) does not pay attention to words, 6) has an auditory perception problem which makes it difficult to hear the subtle differences in words, 7) does not have a good understanding of the structure of language including parts of speech and word parts, prefixes, suffixes and word roots.

There are four different types of vocabularies: listening, speaking, reading and writing. In this section of this work I will try to show how and when students develop their vocabulary during the learning English language.

The listening vocabulary is composed of those words a person understands when he or she hears them spoken. It is possible for a word to be in a person's listening vocabulary and not in his or her speaking, reading, or writing vocabulary. For many students, the listening vocabulary exceeds each of the other vocabularies by a large margin. Listening develops in a student before speaking, reading and writing and may serve as a readiness agent for the other areas. When a child at his or her first lessons of foreign language begins to recognize that the word “pen” means the same like in Russian language “ðó÷êà”, the child will respond without mistake when the teacher shows him/her the pen and asks “What is it?”. Later the child will feel confident enough of the word to use it to communicate with others orally. Still later, reading and writing of the word are likely to develop.

The speaking vocabulary is composed of those words a person can use orally to communicate information to others. Since speaking vocabularies are generally based on listening vocabularies, they are generally smaller than the listening vocabularies. Most students, even people in their own language understand many words that they never use in their speech.

The reading vocabulary is composed of the words that a student recognizes and understands when they are seen in print. A word may be in a student's listening and speaking vocabularies and still not be in his or her reading vocabulary for at least two reasons. First, this occur because the child has not yet learned the sound/symbol relations that are needed to read that word, even though there is a regular sound/symbol association involved. For example, a child at the first stages of studying English language may understand the word “clock” when he or she hears it and may be able to use the word when speaking, but, because the child has not learned the ck blend or some other part of the word, he or she may not be able to read the word “clock” yet. Another reason a word may not be in a person's reading vocabulary is that the word doesn't fit a regular sound/symbol association pattern. For example, a child may have used word “daughter” before, may understand the word when it is spoken, and may be able to use the word orally, and still not be able to recognize it in print because the sound/symbol associations are not regular in English.

The writing vocabulary is composed of words that a student can use accurately in written form, in his or her written communications. Most students have fewer words in their writing vocabularies than in their listening, speaking and reading vocabularies. Using a word in writing requires more than just understanding it when it is heard (listening vocabulary) or read (reading vocabulary). Just as speaking the word does, writing the work requires the ability to recall the word and its meaning and to place it in meaningful relationships to other words, but writing requires one additional step - encoding the word into printed symbols. Writing vocabulary therefore takes somewhat longer to acquire. In addition, the permanence of the written word, as opposed to the spoken word, and its openness to close scrutiny make students unwilling to use in writing any words that they are not sure they have under complete control. Students writing themes, for example, often have excellent descriptive words in mind to use, but opt for easier words because they are more sure of either their spellings or meanings.

1.2 How important is vocabulary

Teaching English vocabulary is an important area worthy of effort and investigation. Recently methodologists and linguists emphasize and recommend teaching vocabulary because of its importance in language teaching. Vocabulary is needed for expressing meaning and in using the receptive (listening and reading) and the productive (speaking and writing) skills. "If language structures make up the skeleton of language, then it is vocabulary that provides the vital organs and the flesh".

Vocabulary is not a syllabus, i.e., a list of words that teachers prepare for their learners to memorize and learn by heart. Memorizing may be good and useful as a temporary technique for tests, but not for learning a foreign language. Language students need to learn vocabulary of the target language in another way. If we are really to teach students what words mean and how they are used, we need to show them being used together in context. Words do not just exist on their own; they live together and they depend upon each other. Therefore, teaching vocabulary correctly is a very important element in language learning. Correct vocabulary instruction involves vocabulary selection, word knowledge and techniques.

1.3 Conveying the meaning

When conveying the meaning to the students, teachers should teach their students that a word may have more than one meaning when used in meaning, different contexts. For example, the word "book" has at least twelve different meanings when used in context. It has eight meanings as a noun, two meanings as a verb and three different meanings when used with prepositions as phrasal verbs. One may say "I booked my ticket three days ago"; another "I booked him for speeding" and so on. Teachers should make the teaching learning vocabulary process clear and easy for their students when conveying any meaning; otherwise the student may feel bored and become fed up with learning vocabulary.

The meaning of words can be communicated in many different ways. One of the methods is suggested that teachers can convey meaning to their students by demonstration or pictures (using an object, using a cut out figure, using gesture, performing and action, photographs, blackboard drawings or diagrams and pictures from books) and by verbal explanation (analytical definition, putting the new word in a defining context, and translating into another language). Besides that, teachers should involve their students in discovering the words' meanings by themselves and let them make efforts to understand words' meanings. When the students are involved in discovering meaning, they will never forget those meanings and they will be able to express themselves fluently.

When a single word has various meanings, the teacher should decide which meanings are to be taught first, i.e., the teacher must decide which meanings occur most frequently and which meanings the learners need most. As a result, the students will be motivated, and gradually they will build their own store of words which will be a basis for communication at any time.

Teaching vocabulary is not just conveying the meaning to the students and asking them to learn those words by heart. If teachers believe that the words are worth explaining and learning, then it is important that they should do this efficiently. Teachers should use different techniques and activities in teaching English vocabulary to motivate the learners, enrich their vocabulary and enable them to speak English properly.

1.4 Seven steps to vocabulary learning

Have you ever considered why a learner (even an advanced one) can hear a difficult English word or phrase literally thousands of times and still not use that word in the way that a native speaker does? You might expect that, after having been exposed to a word in ten, twenty, or maybe at the very most thirty, contexts, a learner will gradually piece together the word's meaning and start to use it correctly, appropriately and fluently.

· Classroom context

· Seven steps to vocabulary learning

· Conclusion

Classroom context

Of course we cannot expect a learner to acquire difficult words in the same way as a young child acquires their first language, but, perhaps as teacher we can somehow help learners to arouse their 'learning monitor' by, for example, providing rich contexts containing the target language and by giving our learners time to reflect on what the language item means. In this way teachers can use the EFL classroom to replicate the real world and nurture strategies to help students understand and produce difficult language items which often seem beyond their grasp.

Seven steps to vocabulary learning

Here are some practical steps that I have used to help my students. As an example I want to focus on one very tricky word ('actually') and suggest ways that a student can understand what it means, and, thereafter, be able to use it more fluently. This model (which consists of seven steps) can be used for any difficult word/phrase.

Step 1

I get my students to listen to the word or phrase in authentic-sounding dialogues

Here are the dialogues I use for 'actually':

Do you want a chocolate?

No, thanks. I'm on a diet actually.

Do you want a coffee?

Actually, I'm a bit pushed for time.

Could I just borrow your book for a moment?

Actually, I'm just about to use it in class. Sorry.

How's John doing?

Actually, he's doing all right!

Ready to go?

Yeah…erm…actually I'm going to take my umbrella. It looks like it might rain.

I see you're still following your diet! (meant sarcastically)

Actually, I've lost a couple of pounds since we last met.

I think the students need at least six contexts to start to understand all the different nuances of meaning of a difficult target item.

Step 2

I give my students plenty of time to study the word in these contexts, so that they can work out what the meaning / function is. I either get them to study the contexts individually and then get them to compare their thoughts in pairs or groups or I get them to discuss in pairs / groups straight away. I prefer the first option, because, this way, each student gets more time to think for him / herself.

Step 3

I discuss the meaning in plenary. I do this in two stages. First, I simply say "So what do you think?" Then, after having heard their thoughts, I ask concept questions that uncover the heart of the meaning.

Examples of concept questions for actually might be:

Is the speaker saying something quite important?

Does the speaker give the other person the answer they want / expect?

Is the speaker asserting him/herself?

Answers: a) important; b) not; c) standing up for him/herself

After doing such concept question work, I use a summing up concept statement, like this one: "So we use 'actually' after someone asks us a question (often a request or offer), and we don't give them the answer they want or expect."

Step 4

I provide a phonological model (including pronunciation, stress, and intonation) in a surrounding sentence.

Most native speakers devote three syllables to 'actually', the stress is on the first syllable, and there is a rise/fall/rise intonation pattern (which signals the conflict in the situation).

Step 5

I provide a prompt - to elicit use of the word in a natural way.

Here are some prompts I use for actually:

"So what do you think of __________ ?" (London) I use a facial expression to show that I expect a positive response.

"Would you like a cigarette?"

"Shall we go out for a meal tonight?"

"How's your friend Bill?"

If I don't get the response I want, I repeat and try to get another student to help. Then, if necessary, I get individual students to repeat the response until they feel completely comfortable with it.

Step 6

I set up a simulation, providing students with the chance to say the word in a natural situation. I distribute the following scenario and get two of my stronger students to act it in front of the class and then I get all the students to act it in closed pairs (rotating roles). This is an example scenario I have used for 'actually'.

John and Mary are in a pub.

1. John asks Mary if she'd like an alcoholic drink.

2. Mary declines this (as she doesn't drink alcohol).

3. John buys her some mineral water.

4. Mary suggests sitting down.

5. John agrees.

6. John asks if it's OK to light a cigarette.

7. Mary says she's got a bronchial problem. (etc.)

Step 7

I set up a review schedule, in which words are elicited and practised. It's always important to review such lessons in the future, but each time I do this, I spend less time on it, and insert bigger gaps between the inclusion of this language item in the review sessions. Ultimately, I reach the point where I just need to say to someone "Fancy a chocolate?" and I automatically get the response "Actually I'm on a diet."

Conclusion

Students who are living in an English-speaking country are often happy learning what difficult words and phrases mean through their everyday study or work lives, but for the majority of students, learning a language is a slow and painful process, and we must try to do something to accelerate the pace of learning. My students should, I believe, benefit from the teaching procedures I've described in this article. If they learn words and phrases in this systematic way in class, they are not only likely to achieve more communicative success in class but also to become more aware of how they learn and the knowledge they need to acquire to learn words more successfully.

1.5 How words are remembered

The learner needs not only to learn a lot of words, but to remember them. In fact, learning is remembering. Unlike the learning of grammar, which is essentially a rule-based system, vocabulary knowledge is largely a question of accumulating individual items. There are few short cuts in the form of generative rules: it is essentially a question of memory. How, then, does memory work? And what are the implications for teaching vocabulary?

Researchers into the workings of memory customarily distinguish between the following systems: the short-term store, working memory, and long-term memory.

The short-term store (STS) is the brain's capacity to hold a limited number of items of information for periods of time up to a few seconds. It is the kind of memory that is involved in holding in your head a telephone number for as long as it takes to be able to dial it. Or to repeat a word that you've just heard the teacher modelling. But successful vocabulary learning clearly involves more than simply holding words in your mind for a few seconds. For words to be integrated long-term memory they need to be subjected to different kinds of operations.

Focussing on words long enough to perform operations on them is the function of working memory. Many cognitive tasks such as reasoning, learning and understanding depend on working memory. It can be thought of as a kind of work bench, where information is first placed, studied and moved about before being filed away for later retrieval. The information that is being manipulated can come from external sources via the senses, or it can be “downloaded” from the long-term memory. Or both. For example, a learner can hear a word (like tangi), download a similar word from long-term memory (like tango), and compare the two in working memory, before deciding if they are the same or different. Material remains in working memory for about twenty seconds.

This capacity is made possible by the existence of the articulatory loop, a process of subvocal repetition, a bit like a loop of audio tape going round and round. It enables the short-term store to be kept refreshed. Having just heard a new word, for example, we can run it by as many times as we need in order to examine it (tangi.. tang.. tangi.. tangi..)-assuming that not to many other new words are competing for space on the loop. The holding capacity of the articulatory loop seems to be a determining factor in the ability to learn languages: the longerthe loop, the better the learner. Or, to put it another way, the ability to hold a phonological representation of a word in working memory is a good predictor of language learning aptitude. Likewise, any interference in the processes of subvocal repetition -e.g. distracting background talk-is likely to disrupt the functioning of the loop and impair learning. Another significant feature of the articulatory loop is that it can hold fewer L2 words than L1 words. This has a bearing on the length of chunk a learner can process at any one time.

Also linked to working memory is a kind of mental sketch pad. Here images-such as visual mnemonics (or memory prompts) - can be placed and scanned in order to elicit words from long term memory into working memory.

Long-term memory can be thought of as a kind of filing system. Unlike working memory, which has a limited capacity and no permanent content, long-term memory has an enormous capacity, and its contents are durable over time. However, the fact that learners can retain new vocabulary items the length of a lesson (i.e. beyond the few seconds' duration of the short-term store) but have forgotten them by the next lesson suggests that long-term memory is not always as long-term as we would wish. Rather, it occupies a continuum from “the quickly forgotten” to “the never forgotten”. The great challenge for language learners is to transform material from the quickly forgotten to the never forgotten. Research into memory suggests that, in order to ensure that material moves into permanent long-term memory, a number of principles need to be observed. Here is a brief summary of some of the research findings that are relevant to the subject of word learning:

· Repetition: The time - honoured way of “memorising” new material is through repeated rehearsal of the material while it is still in working memory -i.e. letting the articulatory loop just run and run. However, simply repeating an item (the basis of rote learning) seems to have little long-term effect unless some attempt is made to organise the material at the same time. But one kind of repetition that is important is repetition of encounters with a word. It has been estimated that, when reading, words stand a good chance of being remembered if they have been met at least seven times over spaced intervals. (Are you still in any doubt, for instance, as to the meaning of tangi?)

· Retrieval: Another kind of repetition that is crucial is what is called the retrieval practice effect. This means, simply, that the act of retrieving a word from memory makes it more likely that the learner will be able to recall it again later. Activities which require retrieval, such as using the new word in written sentences, “oil the path” for future recall.

· Spacing: It is better to distribute memory work across a period of time than to mass it together in a single block. This is known as the principle of distributed practice. This applies in both the short term and the long term. When teaching students a new set o words, for example, it is best to present some more, then backtrack again, and so on. As each word becomes better learned, the testing interval can gradually be extended. The aim is to test each item at the longest interval at which it can reliably be recalled. Similarly, over a sequence of lessons, newly presented vocabulary should be reviewed in the next lesson, but the interval between successive tests should gradually be increased.

· Pacing: learners have different learning styles, and process data at different rates, so ideally they should be given the opportunity to pace their own rehearsal activities. This may mean the teacher allowing time during vocabulary learning for learners to do “memory work”-such as organising or reviewing their vocabulary-silently and individually.

· Use: Putting words to use, preferably in some interesting way, is the best way of ensuring they are added to long-term memory. It is the principle popularly known as Use it or lose it. Meanwhile, the following points all relate to ways of manipulating words in working memory.

· Cognitive depth: The more decisions the learner makes about a word, and the more cognitively demanding these decisions, the better the word is remembered. For example, a relatively superficial judgement might be simply to match it with a word that rhymes with it: e.g. tango/mango. A deeper level decision might be to decide on its part of speech (noun, adjective, verb, etc). Deeper still might be to use it to complete a sentence.

· Personal organising: The judgements that learners make about a word are most effective if they are personalised. In one study, subjects who had read a sentence aloud containing new words showed better recall than subjects who had simply silently rehearsed the words. But subjects who hade made up their own sentences containing the words and read them aloud did better still.

· Imaging: Best of all were subjects who were given the task of silently visualizing a mental picture to go with a new word. Other tests have shown that easily visualized words are more memorable than words that don't immediately evoke a picture. This suggests that-even for abstract words-it might help if learners associate them with some mental image. Interestingly, it doesn't seem to matter if the image is highly imaginative or even very vivid, so long as it is self-generated, rather than acquired “second hand”.

· Mnemonics: These are “tricks” to help retrieve items or rules that are stored in memory and that are not yet automatically retrievable. Even native speakers rely on mnemonics to help with some spelling rules: e.g. i before e except after c. as the previous point suggests, the best kinds of mnemonics are often visual. The most well-attested memory technique is the key word technique.

· Motivation: Simply wanting to learn new words is no guarantee that words will be remembered. The only difference a strong motivation makes is that the learner is likely to spend more time rehearsal and practice, which in the end will pay off in terms of memory. But even unmotivated learners remember words if they have been set tasks that require them to make decisions about them.

· Attention/arousal: Contrary to popular belief, you can't improve your vocabulary in your sleep, simply by listening to a tape. Some degree of conscious attention is required. Avery high degree of attention (called arousal) seems to correlate with improved recall. Words that trigger a strong emotional response, for example, are more easily recalled than ones that don't. this may account for the fact that many learners seem to have a knack of remembering swear words, even if they've heard them only a couple of times.

· Affective depth: Related to the preceding point, affective (i.e. emotional) information is stored along with cognitive (i.e. intellectual) data, and may play an equally important role on how words are stored and recalled. Just as it is important for learners to make cognitive judgements about words, it may also be important to make affective judgements, such as do I like the sound and look of the word? Do I like the thing that the word represents? Does the word evoke any pleasant or unpleasant associations?

1.6 Revising vocabulary

Probably the commonest fault among students is failure to realize that learning is essentially an active process. Too many students sit for hours passively reading and rereading notes and textbooks, without ever attempting actively to recall what they have read. The fallacy of this method has been amply shown by experiments.

The same principles apply to more advanced forms of learning: for effective memory, some form of active expression is essential. The student, therefore, should read through the material he wants to master with close attention and should then reproduce the main points aloud or produce a written summary. An hour's concentrated work of this kind is more effective than three hours' passive reading.

Making the new words active

One of great advantages of revising vocabulary is that it should help you to make the step from having something in your passive vocabulary to having it in your active vocabulary.

Encourage this process by:

· Writing the words and expressions you are trying to learn in a sentence relating to your life and interests at the moment.

· Making a point of using the new words and expressions in your next class or homework.

· Keeping a learning diary in which you note down things that particularly interest you about the words you have learnt.

· Watching out for the words and expressions you are trying to learn in your general reading of English. If you come across any of them in use, write them down in their context in your diary or notebook.

· Writing a paragraph or story linking the words and expressions you want to learn.

1.7 How important is the students' motivation

The desire to learn can come from many causes. Perhaps the students love the subject or are simply interested to see what it is like. On the other hand, they may have a practical reason for their study: they want to learn an instrument so they can play in an orchestra, learn English so they can watch American TV or work with English people.

Famous research carried out in the second half of the twentieth century by Gardner and Lambert suggested that students who felt most warmly about a language and who wanted to integrate into culture of its speakers were more highly motivated (and learnt more successfully) than those who were only learning language as a means to an end (e.g. getting a better job). In other words Integrative motivation was more powerful than Instrumental motivation. But whatever kind of motivation students have, it is clear that highly motivated students do better than ones without motivation at all.

If good learners are those that have a positive attitude towards their subject, what can we do if we get students who aren't like that? Will students whose motivation is only skin-deep be bad learners? Will people who are not extremely keen to learn automatically fail?

One of the main tasks for teachers is to provoke interest and involvement in the subject even when students are not initially interested in it. It is by their choice of topic, activity and linguistic content that they may be able to turn a class around. It is by their attitude to class participation, their conscientiousness, their humour and their seriousness that they may influence their students. It is by their own behaviour and enthusiasm that they may inspire.

Teachers are not, however, ultimately responsible for their students' motivation. They can only encourage by word and deed. Real motivation comes from within each individual.

2. Techniques of teaching

2.1 Techniques for Teaching

Vocabulary development techniques should actively involve the learner as much as possible. Students understand and retain better those things that they have experienced most directly and have been involved in analyzing and discussing. Encouraging use in spoken and written language of the vocabulary terms that are receiving attention is therefore a good idea.

One active method of learning word meanings is through conversations with the teacher and other students about a topic to which the words are related.

Some specific techniques for teaching vocabulary are described below. They are not meant to be used in isolation, but in combinations that allow the students to manipulate the words being studied in a variety ways. These techniques may be used in conjunction with development of basal reader vocabulary, general vocabulary knowledge, or content area vocabulary.

2.2 Categorization

One of the most effective ways to work with words and word meanings is to place the words into categories. By seeing the relationships among many familiar words and the new words, children are able to build connections between new information and prior knowledge. Arranging words in categories is also one way to develop the thinking skill of classifying.

Teachers can use a children's game like “Animals” or “Vegetables”, in which one person thinks of an item and the others try to identify it by first determining the general category and then asking questions about it that can be answering by “YES” or “NO”. If the item is not identified in a specified number of questions, the questioner had lost, the other player identifies the item and then thinks of another item, and the game begins again. This game might be played in the classroom with new vocabulary terms being interspersed with familiar words.

Plastic miniatures of people, animals, vehicles and buildings can also be used for the children as the basis for classification activities. The teacher may place the items on a table in an arrangement such that all of the items except one could fit into a common category, such as “people”. The children are asked to find and remove the item that does not fit and to tell why the chose that item in Russian or Kazakh language. The items may also be grouped into classifications such as living and nonliving, movable and stationary and so on. The teacher should lead the children to discuss reasons for grouping that they develop, pointing out common characteristics.

At first the teacher may designate the categories into which items must be placed, but eventually the children need to come up with the categories independently. This same sequence could be used with word lists in reading.

The teacher may also provide a category, without providing items to place within the category, and let the children suggest appropriate items. For example, teacher asks children to suggest things that grow from the list given below: hair, animal, street, today, child, window, cat, etc.

Also teacher can use this kind of game that can be enjoyable for children and can promote vocabulary development at the same time. In the activity a word is written vertically on the left side of the paper as shown in the table below. Categories are placed in a row across the top of the page. The children are challenged to use reference books or dictionaries to help them fill in the resulting grid with words for each category that start with each letter on the left.

Letter	Name	Animal	Food	Color
B	Bob	bird	beef	Brown
R	Rose	rabbit	rice	red
O	Olga	octopus	orange	orange

2.3 Semantic Feature Analysis

This semantic feature analysis is another good way to conduct word study. In it a number of words are categorized in relationship to several characteristics. For instance, musical instruments might be located under such classifications as string, woodwind, brass, percussion, mouthpiece, bow and others, as shown below. The more features that are considered, the more knowledge the children have to display about the target words in order to complete the chart. If enough features are included along the top of the chart, no two items will have exactly the same pattern of pluses and minuses. In the charter below, for example, timpani and snare drum have the same pattern, but the addition of snares to the list of features would differentiate the two items. Similarly, trumpet and trombone have the same pattern, but the addition of slide to the list of features would change the pattern.

Instrumental	String	Woodwind	Brass	Percussion	Mouthpiece	Bow
Trumpet	-	-	+	-	+	-
Clarinet	-	+	-	-	+	-
Trombone	-	-	+	-	+	-
Timpani	-	-	-	+	-	-
Guitar	+	-	-	-	-	-
Violin	+	-	-	-	-	+
Snare drum	-	-	-	+	-	-
Cymbal	-	-	+	+	-	-
Oboe	-	+	-	-	+	-

Ranking words on one feature is one activity related to semantic feature analysis. For example, words such as none, some, many and all could be ranked on the basis of amount. Synonyms are words that mean close to the same thing, rather than exactly the same thing. Ranking the synonyms on one feature is a helpful activity. For example, the words smell, odor and stench might be rated according to intensity.

2.4 Making Analogies

Making analogies is a good way to learn about the words, as well as to develop thinking skills related to classifying, comparing and contrasting. Young children will start learning the skill necessary for making analogies when they engage in categorization activities, for successful analogy construction requires the recognition of the relationships among words. With young children the teacher may say “A sock goes on your foot like what goes on your hand?” The children are led to see that both relationships are the same type. Gradually the analogies come to be stated as “Sock is to foot as ________ is to hand.” Analogies can be developed on the basis of a multitude of possible relationships: synonym, antonym, homonym, member-organization, etc. Older students can be introduced to the symbols related to analogies, as the analogies become “Sock-foot, ____ - hand” Children enjoy competing to complete such analogies and also creating analogies of their own. Such activities require the use of higher-order thinking skills.

2.5 Structural Analysis

Structural analysis involves learning to recognize common word parts, such as prefixes, suffixes, endings, parts of compound words and parts of contractions, and associating meaning with these word parts. Knowledge of structural analysis gives students a powerful tool in learning the meanings of new words that they encounter. It also enables them to develop skill in analytical thinking as they learn how to understand and use parts of words.

Prefixes and suffixes are common word parts that influence the meanings of the words of which they are a part. Prefixes are group of letters attached to the beginnings of words that modify the meanings of the words (e.g. tie-untie). Suffixes are groups of letters added to the endings of words that may change their meanings or parts of speech (e.g. act-action).

Endings are letters or groups of letters added to the endings of words that may change the tense (e.g. look - looked) or person (e.g. go - goes) of the verb, the number (e.g. girl - girls), case (e.g. Jack - Jack's), gender of the noun (e.g. host-hostess), or degree of the adjective (e.g. big - bigger).

Compound words are words made up of two or more smaller words that combine to produce a new meaning (e.g. houseboat). Sometimes compound nouns consist of two separate nouns, like in word “police officer” (ïîëèöåéñêèé).

Contractions are formed by joining two words together, leaving out one or more letters and replacing them with the apostrophe (e.g. he would - he'd). Some children have trouble differentiating between contractions and possessives, which are also formed with apostrophes. They should be told to substitute the two words from which the contractions would have been formed for the word in the sentences. The result is nonsense when the word was actually possessive.

Teaching prefixes and suffixes by presenting lists of the word parts and their meanings is not a good practice. The word parts will be learned best if they are taught in the context of words for which the children can see some in their school activities.

In working with endings, emphasizing the effects that the endings have on words is important also. First graders may benefit from a practice activity such as shown in this exercise. Teacher asks children to put each word under the correct heading.

Words: tree, toys, birds, hat, bees, book.

One thing	More than one thing

After the children have completed the written activity, the teacher should lead a discussion about the endings of the words in the second column. Children can be asked to produce the singular forms of these words for comparison.

Another ending practice activity is shown in the following exercise. Teacher asks children place the words “big, bigger, biggest” under the correct pictures.

__________ ______________ ______________

2.6 Use of the Dictionary

Use of the dictionary is another approach to vocabulary development that should be overlooked. Dictionary skills need to be deliberately taught, so that students can use them independently when the need arises. It is very important to learn how to use the dictionary, because when students look up words in the dictionary, they often do not fully use the information that is found. If they need only on pronunciation of the word, the phonetic respelling and the pronunciation key hold the information sought. If they are seeking info about meaning, however, they need to be led to use some info that they may have been ignoring. For example, in addition to the lists of translation and meanings that the students expect to find in the dictionary, they are part-of-speech labels, sometimes represented by abbreviations that have to be looked up in the list of abbreviations located elsewhere in the dictionary. There may also be special forms of words with varying endings; indications of language of origin, along with the meanings of the words in those languages; a picture that represents the word; or a sentence that shows the word meaning in the context. All of these features can be helpful in the exploration of word meaning. Pictures that show the word's meaning are very helpful to children who have difficulty visualizing the meanings of printed terms, and sample sentences with the word in context often help them to apply the definition more accurately.

The teacher should discuss the definitions with the children, making sure that they realize that a word may have many different meanings, only one of which will make sense in the context in which they have heard or seen it. Each definition, or at least each definition of the word that is listed under the appropriate part of speech, must be read carefully and tested to see if it would make sense in the context under consideration. Children too often try to force the first definition listed to fit any context that they find, ignoring others that would fit more exactly.

Some activities that can involve students in vocabulary building through use of the dictionary are shown below:

1. Write a list of questions that must be answered by looking the key word up in the dictionary. Some examples follow:

a. Can you drink out of a bluebottle? Why or why not?

b. Can you eat a damson? Why or why not?

c. Is excelsior good for a stomachache? Why or why not?

2. Have the students look up a word in the dictionary and write the meaning that fits each of several contexts provided. As example of some contexts that could be used for the word “act” follows:

a. They left the theater before the first act was over.

b. Don't act like you have never been taught any manners.

c. I wish I could act that part the way Jane did.

d. Taking them in was an act of mercy.

3. Let students search their dictionaries for words that they don't know, but would like to learn. Let each one read definition of a chosen word to the class, and let the class members guess the word from the meaning. If the word if not guessed on the basis of the first meaning read, let the student continue to read meanings until the word is guessed or the definitions are exhausted. Then hold a class discussion of the word, its various definitions, and possible uses of the word in context. A variation of this activity can be carried out with the teacher choosing all of the words to be discussed and the students competing to see who can guess each one first.

1. Construction Word Webs

The construction of word webs is a good way to examine many characteristics of words and their meanings and relationships with other words. Suppose the students were preparing to read a story about a circus. Exploring the term “circus” before the reading begins will bring out the things the children already know about the circus and will meaningfully relate things that they know with things that other children know. The discussion that accompanies building the web is good preparation for reading the story. After reading a web can be expanded based on added information.

Words related to the circus will probably be suggested in rather random order, but the teacher can write them on the board with related ideas close together and later ask the students for a category name for each group of ideas. For example, the teacher developing a web above had to ask “What is a word that describes popcorn, soft drinks and chocolate?”

This way of leaning new words is more effective than just write them on the blackboard with translation. Also teacher can give this task to read a new story and make a web of new words at home.

2. Work Bank Building

Word bank building is a good individual vocabulary development activity. With this activity students write words that they want to add to their meaning vocabularies on the small cards. These word cards will have the word, its phonetic respelling if pronunciation is difficult, translation or definition, a synonym, possibly a picture illustrating the word or a sentence using it in context, and a personal example related to the word.

After a number of word cards have been accumulated in a student's word bank, the teacher may use the word bank cards in classroom activities that he or she plans. For example, the teacher may ask each student to locate in his or her word bank all of the words that describe things, all of the words that name things, all of the words that show the action and so on.

3. Word Play

Word play is an enjoyable way to promote vocabulary growth. Word play may include use of different games, like crossword puzzles, hidden-word puzzles, scrambled-word puzzles, games based on traditional games.

To make the hidden-word puzzle emphasize meaning, give only definitions of or synonyms for the words that the children are seeking, rather than telling them the words themselves. When they find a word, they circle the word and put the number of the definition or synonym in the circle.

b

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Meanings of the hidden words:

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1. Way out

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2. Pleasure

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3. To do something

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4. Seek

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5. Smell

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Scramble-word puzzles are also motivational devices. After scrambling the words, definitions of the words to be unscrambled should be provided to reinforce the importance of meaning in the activity.



1. d l m e o y - tune	1.
2. e e d t u a c - teach	2.
3. e m I k a s t - an error	3.
4. p e n e x s - cost	4.
5. o o l k - see	5.

4. Odd One Out

This game is also very interesting for children. Teacher gives a list of 3 or 4 words where children have to find a word out of the list. For example, in following list of words tea, milk, salad, fruit juice the word salad is out, because other words represent what we can drink, but salad is what we eat.

2.7 Special Types of Vocabulary Terms

Some words and phrases have special attributes that make them particularly interesting to study. Synonyms, antonyms, homonym, multiple-meaning words, words borrowed from other languages, abbreviations, acronyms can all be the basis for meaningful lessons. Knowledge of these types of words and phrases can make understanding spoken and written language easier and can enhance usage in personal speaking and writing activities.

5. Synonyms.

Knowledge of synonyms can increase a person's range of understanding when listening and reading, and it can make his or her spoken and written language more varied, interesting and exact. Although synonyms may have almost identical meanings at times, in most cases there are fine distinctions among the exact meanings of synonyms. A person may be pleased to be referred to as “slender”, but make take offence at being called “thin”, which is one synonym. Both “thin” and “slender” mean “not thick”, but “thin” implies a lack of fullness, whereas “slender” implies a graceful leanness. Carefully choosing synonyms, therefore, may make it possible to flatter, rather than insult people or to give a positive, rather than a negative, slant to what you are saying.

Playing a game called “Varied Verbs” can help children work on the fine distinctions in meaning among verbs that are listed as synonyms. For example, Webster's New World Thesaurus list “march”, “amble”, “saunter” as synonyms for “walk”. Children can act out the meanings of these verbs and the class can discuss the differences among the ways of walking. Students can clarify the meanings of the separate words while they are adding to the repertoires of words that they can use to express themselves more exactly in speaking and writing.

Use of the dictionaries and thesaurus to promote understanding of synonyms can be effective. Children can look up words in these sources and discuss in class the information presented by them, calling attention to fine differences in word meanings, even when the words are very close in meaning. They can construct sample sentences to highlight the differences. For example, word “fried” is listed as a synonym to “heated” in Webster's New World Thesaurus. A sentence such as the following could show how the meanings differ somewhat: “Since the potatoes had been fried earlier, I didn't feel that they needed to be fried again, so I just heated them in the oven.” The teacher should think through some of these small differentiations and first explain them to the children as a model for the activity, and then let the children try to come up with similar differentiations for other words.

6. Antonyms.

Antonyms are words pair that have opposite meanings, such as up and down. Knowledge of antonyms can make speech and written communications clearer and more exact. This knowledge can also help an individual use context clues involving contrast to best effect when listening to oral communications or when reading. Students sometimes have some difficulty in differentiating between a word that has a meaning that is opposite from that of the another word and a word that simply has a meaning that is different from that of the other word. For example, when asked for an antonym for “hot”, they may say “warm” rather than “cold”. Quite a bit of instructional attention may be necessary to develop the idea that “hot” and “cold” represent extremes on the scale of temperature, whereas “warm” lies somewhere in between and is commonly thought to be the opposite of “cool”, another term that does not designate an extreme.

Playing a game called “Opposites” is good for developing meanings of antonyms. The teacher writes pairs of antonyms on word cards ad gives one card to each of a pair of students. The students act out the words on their cards simultaneously, while the children in the class try to identify the antonym pair involved. The pair can be as simple as “high” and “low” or as hard as “rude” and “polite”. The difficulty can be varied to fit the specific class.

As was true with synonyms, use of the dictionaries and thesaurus can be helpful in lessons concerning antonyms. Students can rewrite sentences, producing opposite meanings by changing single words. Debates on the accuracy of the outcomes can be arbitrated through use of the dictionary or thesaurus.

7. Homonyms.

Homonyms are sets of words the sound alike, but have a different spellings and different meanings, for example, “pear”, “pair” and “pare”. Homonyms may cause special decoding problems for some children in reading, since they have to learn that two or three different spellings result in the same pronunciation; however, these different spellings may actually have an overall positive effect on the reading act because the different spelling cue different meanings for the children. Homonyms cause many problems for students in writing also. Recalling the correct spelling for the particular usage appears to be very difficult for many students and incorrect choices abound in writing samples.

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