Modal Verbs
Modal auxiliary verbs. To uses the verb "to be" as a main verb. The main verb. Possibility and Ability. Infinitive without "to". An auxiliary verb, a modal auxiliary verb. A real question. The main uses of Education and verbs in the English language.
| Рубрика | Иностранные языки и языкознание |
| Вид | реферат |
| Язык | английский |
| Дата добавления | 30.06.2014 |
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Can, Could, Be able to
Can and could are modal auxiliary verbs. Be able to uses the verb "to be" as a main verb. It is not an auxiliary verb, but we look at it here for convenience.
Can
Can is an auxiliary verb, a modal auxiliary verb. We use "can" to:
· talk about possibility and ability
· make requests
· ask for or give permission
Structure of Can
subject + can + main verb
The main verb is always the bare infinitive (infinitive without "to").
|
subject |
auxiliary verb |
main verb |
|||
|
+ |
I |
can |
play |
tennis. |
|
|
- |
He |
cannot |
play |
tennis. |
|
|
can't |
|||||
|
? |
Can |
you |
play |
tennis? |
Notice that:
· Can is invariable. There is only one form of can.
· The main verb is always the bare infinitive.
Use of Can
can: Possibility and Ability
We use can to talk about what is possible, what we are able or free to do:
· She can drive a car.
· John can speak Spanish.
· I cannot hear you. (I can't hear you.)
· Can you hear me?
Normally, we use can for the present. But it is possible to use can when we make present decisions about future ability.
A. Can you help me with my homework? (present)
B. Sorry. I'm busy today. But I can help you tomorrow. (future)
can: Requests and Orders
We often use can in a question to ask somebody to do something. This is not a real question - we do not really want to know if the person is able to do something, we want them to do it! The use of can in this way is informal (mainly between friends and family):
· Can you make a cup of coffee, please.
· Can you put the TV on.
· Can you come here a minute.
· Can you be quiet!
can: Permission
We sometimes use can to ask or give permission for something:
A. Can I smoke in this room?
B. You can't smoke here, but you can smoke in the garden.
(Note that we also use could, may, might for permission. The use of can for permission is informal.)
Could
Could is an auxiliary verb, a modal auxiliary verb. We use "could" to:
· talk about past possibility or ability
· make requests
Structure of Could
subject + could + main verb
The main verb is always the bare infinitive (infinitive without "to").
|
subject |
auxiliary verb |
main verb |
|||
|
+ |
My grandmother |
could |
speak |
Japanese. |
|
|
- |
She |
could not |
speak |
Chinese. |
|
|
couldn't |
|||||
|
? |
Could |
your grandmother |
speak |
Japanese? |
Notice that:
· Could is invariable. There is only one form of could.
· The main verb is always the bare infinitive.
Use of Could
could: Past Possibility or Ability
We use could to talk about what was possible in the past, what we were able or free to do:
· I could swim when I was 5 years old.
· My grandmother could speak seven languages.
· When we arrived home, we could not open the door. (...couldn't open the door.)
· Could you understand what he was saying?
We use could (positive) and couldn't (negative) for general ability in the past. But when we talk about one special occasion in the past, we use be able (positive) and couldn't (negative). Look at these examples:
|
Past |
|||
|
General |
Specific Occasion |
||
|
+ |
My grandmother could speak Spanish. |
A man fell into the river yesterday. The police were able to save him. |
|
|
- |
My grandmother couldn't speak Spanish. |
A man fell into the river yesterday. The police couldn't save him. |
could: Requests
We often use could in a question to ask somebody to do something. The use of could in this way is fairly polite (formal):
· Could you tell me where the bank is, please?
· Could you send me a catalogue, please?
Be able to
Although we look at be able to here, it is not a modal verb. It is simply the verb "to be" plus an adjective (able) followed by the infinitive. We look at "be able to" here because we sometimes use it instead of "can" and "could". We use "be able to":
· to talk about ability
Structure of Be able to
The structure of be able to is:
subject + be + able + infinitive
|
subject |
be |
able |
infinitive |
||
|
+ |
I |
am |
able |
to drive. |
|
|
- |
She |
is not |
able |
to drive. |
|
|
isn't |
|||||
|
? |
Are |
you |
able |
to drive? |
Notice that be able to is possible in all tenses, for example:
· I was able to drive...
· I will be able to drive...
· I have been able to drive...
Notice too that be able to has an infinitive form:
· I would like to be able to speak Chinese.
Use of Be able to
be able to: ability
We use be able to to express ability. "Able" is an adjective meaning: having the power, skill or means to do something. If we say "I am able to swim", it is like saying "I can swim". We sometimes use "be able to" instead of "can" or "could" for ability. "Be able to" is possible in all tenses--but "can" is possible only in the present and "could" is possible only in the past for ability. In addition, "can" and "could" have no infinitive form. So we use "be able to" when we want to use other tenses or the infinitive. Look at these examples:
· I have been able to swim since I was five. (present perfect)
· You will be able to speak perfect English very soon. (future simple)
· I would like to be able to fly an airplane. (infinitive)
Have To (objective obligation)
We often use have to to say that something is obligatory, for example:
· Children have to go to school.
Structure of Have To
"Have to" is often grouped with modal auxiliary verbs for convenience, but in fact it is not a modal verb. It is not even an auxiliary verb. In the "have to" structure, "have" is a main verb. The structure is:
subject + auxiliary verb + have + infinitive (with "to")
Look at these examples in the simple tense:
|
subject |
auxiliary verb |
main verb "have" |
infinitive (with "to") |
|||
|
+ |
She |
has |
to work. |
|||
|
- |
I |
do not |
have |
to see |
the doctor. |
|
|
? |
Did |
you |
have |
to go |
to school? |
Use of Have To
In general, "have to" expresses impersonal obligation. The subject of "have to" is obliged or forced to act by a separate, external power (for example, the Law or school rules). "Have to" is objective. Look at these examples:
· In France, you have to drive on the right.
· In England, most schoolchildren have to wear a uniform.
· John has to wear a tie at work.
In each of the above cases, the obligation is not the subject's opinion or idea. The obligation is imposed from outside.
We can use "have to" in all tenses, and also with modal auxiliaries. We conjugate it just like any other main verb. Here are some examples:
|
subject |
auxiliary verb |
main verb "have" |
infinitive |
|||
|
past simple |
I |
had |
to work |
yesterday. |
||
|
present simple |
I |
have |
to work |
today. |
||
|
future simple |
I |
will |
have |
to work |
tomorrow. |
|
|
present continuous |
She |
is |
having |
to wait. |
||
|
present perfect |
We |
have |
had |
to change |
the time. |
|
|
modal (may) |
They |
may |
have |
to do |
it again. |
modal auxiliary verb infinitive
Must (subjective obligation)
We often use must to say that something is essential or necessary, for example:
· I must go.
Structure of Must
"Must" is a modal auxiliary verb. It is followed by a main verb. The structure is:
subject + must + main verb
The main verb is the base verb (infinitive without "to").
Look at these examples:
|
subject |
auxiliary verb |
main verb |
||
|
I |
must |
go |
home. |
|
|
You |
must |
visit |
us. |
|
|
We |
must |
stop |
now. |
Use of Must
In general, "must" expresses personal obligation. "Must" expresses what the speaker thinks is necessary. "Must" is subjective. Look at these examples:
· I must stop smoking.
· You must visit us soon.
· He must work harder.
In each of the above cases, the "obligation" is the opinion or idea of the person speaking. In fact, it is not a real obligation. It is not imposed from outside.
We can use "must" to talk about the present or the future. Look at these examples:
· I must go now. (present)
· I must call my mother tomorrow. (future)
There is no past tense for "must". We use "have to" to talk about the past.
Must Not (prohibition)
We use must not to say that something is not permitted or allowed, for example:
· Passengers must not talk to the driver.
Structure of Must Not
"Must" is an auxiliary verb. It is followed by a main verb. The structure for "Must Not" is:
· Subject + "Must Not" + Main Verb
The Main Verb is the base verb (infinitive without "to").
"Must Not" is often contracted to "mustn't".
Look at these examples:
|
subject |
auxiliary "Must" + "Not" |
main verb |
||
|
I |
mustn't |
forget |
my keys. |
|
|
You |
mustn't |
disturb |
him. |
|
|
Students |
must not |
be |
late. |
NB: like all auxiliary verbs, "must" cannot be followed by an infinitive. So, we say:
· You mustn't arrive late. (not You mustn't to arrive late.)
Use of Must Not
"Must Not" expresses prohibition - something that is not permitted, not allowed. The prohibition can be subjective (the speaker's opinion) or objective (a real law or rule). Look at these examples:
· I mustn't eat so much sugar. (subjective)
· You mustn't watch so much television. (subjective)
· Students must not leave bicycles here. (objective)
· Policemen must not drink on duty. (objective)
We use "Must Not" to talk about the present or the future:
· Visitors must not smoke. (present)
· I mustn't forget Tara's birthday. (future)
We cannot use "Must Not" for the past. We use another structure to talk about the past, for example:
· We were not allowed to enter.
· I couldn't park outside the shop.
Shall and Will
People may sometimes tell you that there is no difference between shall and will, or even that today nobody uses shall (except in offers such as "Shall I call a taxi?"). This is not really true. The difference between shall and will is often hidden by the fact that we usually contract them in speaking with 'll. But the difference does exist.
The truth is that there are two conjugations for the verb will:
|
1st Conjugation (objective, simple statement of fact) |
|||||
|
Person |
Verb |
Example |
Contraction |
||
|
Singular |
I |
shall |
I shall be in London tomorrow. |
I'll |
|
|
you |
will |
You will see a large building on the left. |
You'll |
||
|
he, she, it |
will |
He will be wearing blue. |
He'll |
||
|
Plural |
we |
shall |
We shall not be there when you arrive. |
We shan't |
|
|
you |
will |
You will find his office on the 7th floor. |
You'll |
||
|
they |
will |
They will arrive late. |
They'll |
|
2nd Conjugation (subjective, strong assertion, promise or command) |
|||||
|
Person |
Verb |
Example |
Contraction |
||
|
Singular |
I |
will |
I will do everything possible to help. |
I'll |
|
|
you |
shall |
You shall be sorry for this. |
You'll |
||
|
he, she, it |
shall |
It shall be done. |
It'll |
||
|
Plural |
we |
will |
We will not interfere. |
We won't |
|
|
you |
shall |
You shall do as you're told. |
You'll |
||
|
they |
shall |
They shall give one month's notice. |
They'll |
It is true that this difference is not universally recognized. However, let those who make assertions such as "Americans never use 'shall'" peruse a good American English dictionary, or many American legal documents, which often contain phrases such as:
· Each party shall give one month's notice in writing in the event of termination.
Note that exactly the same rule applies in the case of should and would. It is perfectly normal, and somewhat more elegant, to write, for example:
· I should be grateful if you would kindly send me your latest catalogue.
Ten sentences:
1) Children have to go to school.
2) I must go to the university.
3) People mustn't drive a car when they drink alcohol.
4) I needn't do math today, I can do it later.
5) I should study harder before exams.
6) Elephants and mice can't fly.
7) I could play snooker much better two years ago than I can now.
8) I can't have made a mistake in my calculations because I used a calculator.
9) Can you run 100 meters in 5.5 seconds? 10)
10) Students mustn't eat or drink during the lection.
Texts:
Combinatorial mathematics.
Specialists in a broad range of fields have to deal with problems that involve combinations made up of letters, numbers or any other objects.
The field of mathematics that studies problems of how many different combinations can be built out of a specific number of objects is called combinatorial mathematics (combinatorics).
This branch of mathematics has its origin in the 16th century, in the gambling games that played such a large part in high society in those times. These games gave the initial impetus to develop combinatorial mathematics and the theory of probability.
Italian and French mathematicians were the first to enumerate the various combinations achieved in games of dice. Further advances in the theory of combinations were connected with the names of German scientists.
In recent years combinatorial mathematics has seen extensive developments associated with grater interest in problems of discrete mathematics. Combinatorial methods can be employed in solving transport problems, in particular scheduling; the scheduling of production facilities and of the sale of goods. Links have been established between combinatorics and problems of linear programming, statistics, etc. Combinatorial methods are used in coding and decoding and in the solution of other problems of information theory.
The combinatorial approach also plays a significant role in purely mathematical problems such as the theory of groups and their representations, in the study of the main principles of geometry, some branches of algebra, etc.
Probability
Probability is a mathematical expression of the likelihood of an event. Every probability is a fraction. The largest probability can be 1. The smallest probability can be is 0, meaning that it's something that cannot happen. You can find the probability that something will not happen by subtracting the probability that it will happen from 1. For example, if the weatherman tells you that there is a 0.3 probability of rain today, then there must be a 0.7 probability that it won't rain.
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