Theoretical basis of syllable formation and syllable division

Syllabification also describes the process of a consonant becoming a syllable nucleus.

Syllable structure often interacts with stress. In Latin, for example, stress is regularly determined by syllable weight, a syllable counting as heavy if it has at least one of the following:

- a long vowel in its nucleus

- a diphthong in its nucleus

- one or more coda(e)

In each case the syllable is considered to have two moras.

The syllable is a basic unit of speech studied on both the phonetic and phonological levels of analysis. No matter how easy it can be for people and even for children to count the number of syllables in a sequence in their native language, still there are no universally agreed upon phonetic definitions of what a syllable is.

Phonetically syllables “are usually described as consisting of a centre which has little or no obstruction to airflow and which sounds comparatively loud; before and after that centre (…) there will be greater obstruction to airflow and/or less loud sound” (Roach, 2000: 70). In the monosyllable (one-syllable word) cat /kжt/, the vowel /ж/ is the “centre” at which little obstruction takes place, whereas we have complete obstruction to the airflow for the surrounding plosives /k/ and /t/.

Laver (1994: 114) defines the phonological syllable as “a complex unit made up of nuclear and marginal elements”. Nuclear elements are the vowels or syllabic segments; marginal elements are the consonants or non-syllabic segments. In the syllable paint /pe?nt/, the diphthong /e?/ is the nuclear element, while initial consonant /p/ and the final cluster /nt/ are marginal elements.

Attempts have been made to provide physiological, acoustic or auditory explanations and definitions of the syllable. According to the prominence theory, for example, which is based mainly on auditory judgements, the number of syllables in a word is determined by the number of peaks of prominence. In the word entertaining /?ent??te?n??/ the peaks of prominence are represented by the vowels /e ? e? ?/. However, this theory does not help much in discussions of syllable division.

The chest pulse theory discusses the syllable in the context of muscular activities and lung movements in the process of speech. Experiments have shown that the number of chest pulses, accompanied by increase of air pressure can determine the number of syllables produced (Gimson, 1980: 56), thus allowing to associate the number of syllables with the number of chest pulses. This approach, however, cannot account for cases when 2 vowels occur one after the other - for example in words like being /?bi:??/ or playing /?ple???/ the second chest pulse might be almost irrelevant and thus lead erroneously to the conclusion that such English words consist of one syllable only.

Another approach is presented by sonority theory according to which the pulses of pulmonic air stream in speech “correspond to peaks in sonority” (Giegerich, 1992: 132). The sonority of a speech sound is discussed as “its relative loudness compared to other sounds” (Giegerich, 1992: 132) and each syllable corresponds to a peak in the flow rate of pulmonic air. Thus nuclear elements, or syllabic segments can be described as intrinsically more sonorous than marginal, or non-syllabic elements.

Speech sounds can be ranked in terms of their intrinsic sonority according to a sonority scale. The sonority scale for English is given below (although in principle it is also valid for other languages). Voiced segments are more sonorous than voiceless ones and sonorants are more sonorous than obstruents; vowels are more sonorous than consonants, open vowels being more sonorous than close ones.

As can be seen from the chart, there are two peaks of sonority in the phoneme string /p-e?-n-t-?-?/, namely the vowels /e? ?/. This is to indicate that the number of syllables is 2 as well.

The sonority scale, like all the approaches outlined above, is of little help when it comes to delimiting separate syllables, however.

The bulk of present-day phonological theory agrees that the syllable has constituent or hierarchical, rather than linear, structure.

The syllable (conventionally marked as small Greek sigma: у) has two immediate constituents (it “branches” into two elements, to put it in another way) - the Onset (O), which includes any consonants that precede the nuclear element (the vowel), and the Rhyme (R), which subsumes the nuclear element (the vowel) as well as any marginal elements (consonants) that might follow it. The Rhyme, in turn, further branches into Peak (P), also known as Nucleus (N), and Coda (Co). The Peak (Nucleus), as the designation suggests, represents the “nuclear” or most sonorous element in a syllable. The Coda includes all consonants that follow the Peak in a syllable. Syllable structure may be represented graphically by means of a “tree diagram”. The first example we shall take is cat /kжt/.

In the case of cat /kжt/, the Onset, Peak and Coda each consist of one segment: the consonant (C) /k/ occupies the Onset, the vowel (V) /ж/ - the Peak, and the consonant /t/ is the Coda of this syllable. However, there are syllables in English where either or both marginal elements (i.e. O and/or Co) are absent - only the Peak is an obligatory element in all languages, and in English both the Onset and the Coda are optional. (There are languages, though, where the Onset is obligatory, as well as such that allow no Codas.) Consider the following examples.

On the other hand, the Onset, Peak and Coda may each further branch into two C- or V-constituents respectively. Then we speak about branching or complex Onsets etc. The English syllable drowned /dra?nd/ is an example in which all three elements branch:

As can be seen from the diagram, diphthongs are treated as branching Peaks - each element of the diphthong occupies a single V-slot. The case is quite similar with “long vowels”: in terms of syllable structure, they are interpreted as sequences of two identical V-elements - /i:/ is represented as V1 = [i] + V2 = [i], and /?: ?: ?: u:/ are [?+?, ?+?, ?+?, u+u] respectively. Syllables ending in a consonant, e.g. cat /kжt/, it /?t/, eat /i:t/, are traditionally known as closed syllables, whereas those ending in a vowel, as in sea /si:/ or eye /a?/, are called open. In terms of syllable structure, in closed syllables the Coda is present, i.e. we have a branching Rhyme, while open ones have non-branching Rhymes - the Coda element is absent. Syllable Onset is irrelevant to this distinction. For a more detailed (and slightly more specialised) but still quite terse account of syllable structure, click here. Mind some differences in transcription and terminology, though. Then you might proceed to a description of syllable structure within the framework of Optimality Theory (a relatively recent school in phonology) by clicking here. (But first you might wish to read an overview of Optimality Theory.)

Syllables ending in a consonant, e.g. cat /kжt/, it /?t/, eat /i:t/, are traditionally known as closed syllables, whereas those ending in a vowel, as in sea /si:/ or eye /a?/, are called open. In terms of syllable structure, in closed syllables the Coda is present, i.e. we have a branching Rhyme, while open ones have non-branching Rhymes - the Coda element is absent. Syllable Onset is irrelevant to this distinction.

For a more detailed (and slightly more specialised) but still quite terse account of syllable structure, click here. Mind some differences in transcription and terminology, though. Then you might proceed to a description of syllable structure within the framework of Optimality Theory (a relatively recent school in phonology) by clicking here. (But first you might wish to read an overview of Optimality Theory.)

Phonotactics: the rules that describe possible sequences of sounds for forming English words.

I. all phonological words must contain at least one syllable, and hence must contain at least one vowel.

II. Sequences of repeated consonants are not possible.

III. The velar nasal /ng/ never occurs in the onset of a syllable.

IV. The glottal fricative /h/ never occurs in the coda of a syllable.

V. The affricates /ts/ and /dz/, and the glottal fricative /h/ do not occur in complex onsets.

VI. The first consonant in a two - consonant onset must be an obstruent. (p,t,k, d, f, g)

VII. The second consonant in a two - consonant onset must not be a voiced obstruent.

VIII. If the first consonant of a two - consonant onset is not an /s/, the second consonant must be a liquid or a glide the second consonant must be /l/, /r/, /w/, or /j/

IX. Every subsequence contained within a sequence of consonants must obey all the relevant phonotactic rules.

X. No glides in syllable codas.

XI. The second consonant in a two - consonant coda cannot be /ng/, /d/, /r/,/3/.

XII. If the second consonant in a complex coda is voiced, the first consonant in the coda must also be voiced.

XIII. When a non - alveolar nasal is in a coda together with a non - alveolar obstruent, they must have the same place of articulation, and obstruent must be a voiceless stop.

Two obstruents in a coda together must have the same voicing.

1.3 The peculiarities of Phonotactics as the branch that studies a syllable

Phonotactics is a branch of phonology that studies the permissible strings of phonemes in a language. The syllable is a central unit in phonotactic description, although sometimes the principles governing the distribution of phonemes go beyond the confines of a single syllable.

Two or more languages with similar, even identical phoneme inventories may have very different rules governing the distribution of phonemes in morphemes, words, syllables. Thus both standard North German and English have systems of plosives that can be represented /p b t d k g/ and both have the sibilants /s z ?/. But whereas these are distributed quite freely in English, in German none of the voiced ones may appear word finally. Further, while German allows both /s/ and /z/ medially, only /z/ occurs initially in native words before vowels: G Sohn /zo:n/ vs. E son /s?n/; and only /?/ occurs initially before consonants: G Sturm /?t?rm/ vs. E storm /st?:m/. (Lass, 1984: 23)

English has certain limitations on the form of strong syllables - they can be open only if they contain a long vowel or a diphthong, and only a closed strong syllable may have a short vowel. In other words, long vowels and diphthongs can occur in both open (sue /su:/, bay /be?/) and closed (beam /bi:m/, eight /e?t/) strong syllables, whereas short vowels only occur in closed ones (cat /kжt/, ill /?l/).

As we saw in the section on syllable structure, a syllable ending in VC has a branching Rhyme with a non-branching Peak and Coda; and VV is a branching Peak, while VVC is a branching Rhyme with a branching Peak and a non-branching Coda. We can now consider the permissible Rhyme structures of English strong syllables:

Part 2. The questions of typology of accentual structure of English words

2.1 Degrees of stress and rhythmical tendency

The numerous variations of English word stress are systematized in the typology of accentual structure of English words worked out by G.P. Torsuyev. He classifies them according to the number of stressed syllables, their degree or character (the main and the secondary stress). The distribution of stressed syllables within the word accentual types forms accentual structures of words. Accentual types and accentual structures are closely connected with the morphological type of words, with the number of syllables, the semantic value of the root and the prefix of the word. syllable phonotactic phraseology word

The accentual types are:

I. ['___]. This accentual type marks both simple and compound words. The accentual structures of this type may include two and more syllables, e.g. 'fafher, 'possibly, 'mother-in-law, 'gas-pipe.

II. [ '_ '_ ]. The accentual type is commonly realized in compound words, most of them are with separable prefixes, e.g. 'radio-'active, 're'write, 'diso'bey.

III. [ '_' _ '_ ] and 4. ['_' _ '_ '_]. The accentual types are met in initial compound abbreviations like 'U'S'A, 'U'S'S'R.

IV. ['_ ,___]. The type is realized both in simple and compound words, very

common among compound words, e.g. 'hair-,dresser, 'substructure.

V. [, _'___]. The accentual type marks a great number of simple words and some compound words as well. In simple words the stresses fall onto:

1). the prefix and the root: maga'zine;

2). the root and the suffix: ,hospi'tality;

3). the prefix and the suffix: disorganization.

VI. ['_,_'_] The type includes rather a small number of simple words with the separable prefixes, e.g. 'mis,repre'sent.

VII. [,_,_'_ _]. The type is found in a very small number of words, usually simple words with the stresses on the prefix, the root and the suffix, e.g. ,indi,viduali'zation.

VIII. ['_'_,_ _]. The type is met in rare instances of compound words with separable prefixes, e.g. 'un'sea,worthy.

IX. ['_ _,_,_]. The type is represented by rare instances of simple and compound words, e.g. 'soda-,water ,bottle.

X. [,_'_,_] The type is found in rare instances of compound words consisting of the three components, e.g. ,ginger'beer-,bottle.

The data given above suggest an idea of the great variability in the accentual structure of English words.

The most widely spread among the enumerated accentual types are supposed to be Type 1, Type 2, Type 5 and Type 6. Each type includes varieties of definite accentual structures with different numbers of syllables and marks thousands of words. So the four of them cover the main bulk of most common English words and are therefore most typical for the English vocabulary.

The variability of the word accentual structure is multiplied in connected speech. The accentual structure of words may be altered under the influence of rhythm, e.g. An 'unpolished 'stone but: The 'stone was un'polished.

The tempo of speech may influence the accentual pattern of words. With the quickening of the speed the carefulness of articulation is diminished, the vowels are reduced or elided, the secondary stress may be dropped, e.g. The 'whole organi'zation of the 'meeting was 'faulty.

The variability of the English word accentual structure presents great difficulty for students of English.

They should be well acquainted with the four most widely spread accentual types of words, mentioned above and be aware of the modifications of word accentual patterns influenced by rhythm and tempo in connected speech.

The given examples of the accentual structure of words in connected speech show that the word stress is closely interrelated with sentence stress. We shall now try to see their similarity and difference. The demarcation of word stress and sentence *stress is very important both from the theoretical and the practical viewpoint. Sentence stress usually falls on the very syllable of the word which is marked by word stress.

Thus the accentual structure of the word predetermines the arrangement of stresses In a phrase. At the same time the stress pattern of a phrase is always conditioned by the semantic and syntactical factors.

The words which usually become stressed in a phrase are notional words. They convey the main idea of the phrase, though any word including form words may be marked by sentence stress, if it has certain semantic value in the sentence.

The common character of word stress and sentence stress is also observed in their rhythmical tendency to alternate stressed arid unstressed syllables and pronounce them at approximately equal intervals.

Now we should like to distinguish the notions of word stress and sentence stress.

They are first of all different; in their sphere of application as they are applied to different language units: word stress is naturally applied to a word, as a linguistic unit, sentence stress is applied to a phrase.

Secondly, the distinction of the rhythmic structure of a word and a phrase is clearly observed in the cases when the word stress in notional words is omitted in a phrase, e.g.

I 'don't think he is 'right.

Or when the rhythmic structure of the isolated word does not coincide with that of a phrase, e.g.

'Fifteen. 'Room Fifteen. 'Fifteen 'pages.

So in a speech chain the phonetic structure of a word obtains additional characteristics connected with rhythm, melody, and tempo. Though the sentence stress falls on the syllable marked by the word stress it is not realized in the stressed syllable of an isolated word but in a word within speech continuum. Since the spheres of word stress and sentence stress fall apart their functions are actually different. Sentence stress organizes a sentence into a linguistic unit, helps to form its rhythmic and intonation pattern, performs its distinctive function on the level of a phrase.

There are actually as many: degrees of stress in a word as there are syllables. A.C. Gimson, for example, shows the distribution of the degrees of stress in the word examination. The opinions of phoneticians differ as to how many degrees of stress are linguistically relevant in, a word. The British linguists usually distinguish three degrees of stress in the word. The primary stress is the strongest, it is marked by number 1 in the, word examination, the secondary stress is the second strongest marked by 2. All the other degrees are termed weak stress. Unstressed syllables are supposed to have weak stress. The American scholars В.Bloch and G.Trager find
four contrastive degrees of word stress, namely: loud, reduced loud, medial and weak stresses. Other American linguists also distinguish four degrees of word stress but term them: primary stress, secondary stress, tertiary stress and weak stress. The difference between the secondary and tertiary stresses is very subtle and: seems subjective. The criteria of their difference are very vague. The second pretonic syllables of such words as libe'ration, ,recog'nition are marked by secondary stress in RP, in General American they are said to have a tertiary stress. In GA a tertiary stress also affects the suffixes -оrу, -ary, -ony of nouns and the suffixes -ate, -ize, -y of verbs, which are considered unstressed in RP e.g. 'territory, 'cere,mony, 'dictio,nary, 'demonst,rate, 'orga,nize, 'simpli,fy. British linguists do not always deny the existence of tertiary stress as a tendency to use a tertiary stress On a post-tonic syllable in RP is also traced. However, the British conception of three degrees of word stress is accepted as the teaching norm.

We would like to point out right here that the accentual structure of English words is liable to instability due to the different origin of several layers in the Modern English wordstock. In Germanic languages the word stress originally fell on the initial syllable or the second syllable, the root syllable in the English words with prefixes. This tendency was called recessive. Most English words of Anglo-Saxon origin as well as the French borrowings (dated back to the 15th century) arе subjected to this recessive tendency. Unrestricted recessive tendency is observed in the native English Words having no prefix, e.g. mother, daughter, brother, swallow, in assimilated French borrowings, e.g. reason, colour, restaurant. Restricted recessive tendency marks English words with prefixes, e,g, foresee, begin, withdraw, apart. A great number of words of Anglo-Saxon origin are moresyllabic or disyllabic, both notional words and form words. They tend to alternate in the flow of speech, e.g. I 'don't be'lieve he's, 'right.

The rhythm of alternating stressed and unstressed syllables gave birth to the rhythmical tendency in the present-day English which caused the appearance of the secondary stress in the multi-syllabic French borrowings, e.g. ,revolution, ,organi'sation, as,si-mi'lation, etc. It also explains the placement of primary stress on the third syllable from the end in three- and four-syllable words, e.g. 'cinema, 'situate, er'ticulate. The interrelation of both the recessive and the rhythmical tendencies is traced in the process of accentual assimilation of the French-borrowed word personal on the diachronic level, e;g; perso'nal -- perso'nal -- personal.

The appearance of the stress on the first syllable is the result of the recessive tendency and at the same time adaptation to the rhythmical tendency. The recessive tendency being stronger, the trisyllabic words like personal gained the only stress on the third syllable from the end, e.g. 'family, 'library, 'faculty, 'possible.

The accentual patterns of the words 'territory, 'dictionary, 'neces,sary in GA with the primary stress on the first syllable and the tertiary stress on the third are other examples illustrating the correlation of the recessive and rhythmical tendencies. Nowadays we witness a great number of variations in the accentual structure of English multisyllabic words as a result of the interrelation of the tendencies. The stress on the initial syllable is caused by the diachronical recessive tendency or the stress on the second syllable under the influence of the strong rhythmical tendency of the present day, e.g. 'hospitable-- ho'spitable, 'distribute -- dis'trihute, 'aristocrat -- a'ristocrat, 'laryngoscope -- la'ryngoscope.

A third tendency was traced in the instability of the accentual structure of English word stress, the retentive tendency: a derivative often retains the stress of the original or parent word, e.g. 'similar -- as'similate, secom'mend - recomme'ndation.

2.2 Functional aspects of word stress

In discussing accentual structure of English words we should turn now to the functional aspect of word stress. Word stress in a language performs three functions. I. Word stress constitutes a word, it organizes the syllables of a word into a language unit having a definite accentual structure, that is a pattern of relationship among the syllables; a word does not exist without the word stress. Thus the word stress performs the constitutive function. Sound continuum becomes a phrase when it is divided into units organized by word stress into words.

II. Word stress enables a person to identify a succession of syllables as a definite accentual pattern of a word. This function of word stress is known as identificatory (or recognitive). Correct accentuation helps the listener to make the process of communi-.cation easier, whereas the distorted accentual pattern of words, misplaced word stresses prevent normal understanding.

III. Word stress alone is capable of differentiating the meaning of words or their forms, thus performing its distinctive function. The accentual patterns of words or the degrees of word stress and their positions form oppositions, e.g. 'import -- im'port.

VA.Vassilyev introduces the term "accenteme" for Word stress as a suprasegmental phonological unit having different degrees and placement in a word . For instance the primary accenteme is opposed to the weak word accenteme (unstressed position), in 'import -, im'port differentiating the noun from the verb. A.C.Gimson establishes three groups of words with identical spelling representing different parts of speech which are opposed by means of shifting of the stress

1. A small group of words where the noun is differentiated from a verb by the opposition of the accentual pattern of the word alone, e.g.

increase [`inkri:s] - [in'kri:s]

impress [`impres] - [im'pres]

inlay [`inlei] - [in'lei]

2: The second group where the shifting of the stress which means the change of the accentual pattern of the word may be or may not be accompanied by the reduction of the vowel in the unstressed vowel, e.g.

transport [`trжnspo:t] - [trжns'pot] or [tr?ns'pot]

3. The largest group of such pairs of words manifests the change of their accentual pattern together with the qualitative reduction of the unstressed vowel, e.g.

combine [ `kombain] - [k?m'bain]

contrast [`kontra:st] - [k?n'tra:st]

and many others.

Oppositions of accentual types of words are also observed as a concomitant factor in word-formation in addition to suffixation.

[`_ _ _] - [,_ _ `_] e.g. `organize - ,organi'zation

[`_'_ _ _] - [`_,_ _ `_ _] e.g. `predis'pose - `pre,dispo'sition

[`_ _ _] - [`_ _ _ `_] e.g. `solemn - `solemni'zation

[,_ _ `_] - [`_ _ ,_ _'_ _] e.g. ,incon'siderable - `incon,side'ration.

There is also a group of accentuation oppositions where compound nouns are opposed to free word combinations, e.g.

a `dancing-girl - танцовщица

a `dancing `girl - танцующая девушка

As we have already mentioned the same distinctive function of word stress is observed in the Russian language, It differentiates words and their grammatical forms, e.g.

The words чэдная - чуднбя, безобрбзная - безубразная are different lexical units, they differ in meaning. ,

The words зимы - зимы, беды-- беды represent different, grammatical forms of the same lexical unit. Both in word-building and in word-formation the shifting of stress is accompanied by the qualitative reduction of the unstressed syllable. Word-formation with the help of the shifting of stress is quite common in
Russian as well as in English.

The accentual structure of words is actually very closely interrelated with their semantic value. By way of illustration we shall now analyse a fairly large class of words in English which are marked by two primary stresses (Accentual Type П). They are either compounds consisting of two semantically important, stems or words with semantically relevant separable prefixes or the suffix -teen. The accentual pattern of this group of words is regulated by the meaningful weight of the elements of the compounds. Word stress establishes contrastive relationship of the elements and often creates opposition to comparable words.

Most of compound adjectives have two equal stresses as both elements in them are semantically important, e.g. 'absent-'minded, 'good-looking. ...

As soon as the significance of one of the elements of a compound adjective is weakened, its accentual pattern is changed. (Accentual Type I), e.g. 'spring-like, 'nymph-like, 'powder-like; 'oval-shaped,'bow-shaped.

The same tendency is observed in compound nouns: if their elements are semantically important both elements are equally stressed (Accentual Type П), e.g. 'north-east, 'north-'west, 'south-'west.

At the same time, as we very well know, most of compound nouns have one stress on the first element which is more significant than the second one. They are sometimes opposed to other compounds with the same second element, e.g. 'dining-room - 'bedroom -- 'bathroom -- 'living-room; 'shop-girl -- 'ballet-girl.

Compound verbs have two equal stresses as their postpositions change the actual meaning of the verb itself as it is illustrated in the following example:.

What shall I do with it?

- 'Put it where it ,was.

- Put it ,on.

Conclusion

In this course paper we have treated some problems of accentual structure, such as the quantitative and qualitative components of word stress, vowels and consonants.

From chapter I we have known that vowel of the stressed syllable is perceived as never reduced or obscure and longer than the same vowel in the unstressed syllables.

In the point 1.1. we have said about European languages such as English, German, French, Russian, and that they are believed to possess predominantly dynamic word stress. In Scandinavian languages the word stress is considered to be both dynamic and musical.

In the point 1.2. we have paid attention to the instability of English accentual structure of words and that the English presents much difficulty for Russian learners, because of his multisyllabic words the accentual structure of which is regulated by the rhythmical tendency.

In chapter II We have pointed out that in a speech chain the phonetic structure of a word obtains additional characteristics connected with rhythm, melody, and tempo. Though the sentence stress falls on the syllable marked by the word stress it is not realized in the stressed syllable of an isolated word but in a word within speech continuum.

In the point 2.1. we singled out that the opinions of phoneticians differ as how many degrees of stress are linguistically relevant in a word.

So, we think that we have achieved the aim of the course paper and fulfilled all the tasks which were put in this work.

A syllable is a unit of sound composed of

- a central peak of sonority (usually a vowel), and

the consonants that cluster around this central peak.

Syllable structure, which is the combination of allowable segments and typical sound sequences, is language specific.

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