The dialects of England
Basic types and forms of English dialects. Especially the use of speech in writing. Characteristics of their style of origin. Differences in the utilize of language between people. Analysis idioms around the world. The essence of the famous rhyme slang.
| Рубрика | Иностранные языки и языкознание |
| Вид | реферат |
| Язык | английский |
| Дата добавления | 12.02.2015 |
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Ministry of Education of the Republic of Kazakhstan
The dialects of England
Astana - 2014
Content
1. The Dialects of English language. Their types and forms
2. British English
1. The Dialects of English language. Their types and forms
Where we are from is important to people - hence support for football teams from our home region, returning to our roots at Christmas, etc. Nearly all of us have regional features in the way we speak and this is part of our identity.
We all speak with an accent and we all speak a dialect.
Accent: the way we pronounce English. Since we all pronounce when we speak, we ALL shave an accent. Most people's accents will have some regional features. 3-5% of speakers in England may use the totally regionless accent of received pronunciation, either because they have been to one of the big public schools or because they want to sound as if they have.
Dialect: not only pronunciation, but also the words and grammar that people use:
I haven't got any / I haven't got none
Most regional dialects are spoken with a corresponding regional accent (eg Lancashire dialect + Lancashire accent).
Standard English
The dialect normally used in writing and spoken by the most powerful and educated members of the population. It is a minority dialect, spoken by perhaps 12-15% of the population. About 7-12% of standard English speakers speak it with a regional accent.
|
Standard English |
Non-standard dialects |
|
|
I did it |
I done it |
|
|
A man that I know |
A man what I know |
|
|
He doesn't want any |
He doesn't want none |
|
|
She isn't coming |
She ain't coming |
|
|
We saw him |
We seen him |
Standard English comes in a number of different forms:
|
English standard English |
American standard English |
|
|
I haven't written to him even though I should have done |
I haven't written to him even though I should have |
|
|
It's got cold in here |
It's gotten cold in here |
Scottish and Irish standard English are also a little different. In fact, English standard English vary a little between north and south:
|
South: |
North: |
|
|
I won't do it. We haven't seen him |
I'll not do it. We've not seen him. |
Dialect issues should not be confused with degrees of formality. All dialects can be spoken in less or more formal styles. For example:
I'm completely inebriated - I'm bloody sozzled
are both standard English; the latter is just a more informal style.
I be very drunk
is a more formal style but of some non-standard dialect.
Like all dialects, Standard English allows stylistic variation, including swearing, highly informal vocabulary and slang.
Regional dialects
There are two different sorts:
1 Traditional dialects
Spoken by a shrinking minority of the population. They often differ considerably from standard English and from each other. They can be difficult to understand when first encountered - eg:
She bain't a-coming
Hoo inno comin
Her idden comin
2 Mainstream dialect
These include both the standard English dialect and the Modern Non-standard Dialects. Most native English speakers speak some variety of Mainstream Dialect.
These dialects are associated with native speakers outside the British Isles, especially in Australia, USE and Canada. In Britain they are particularly associated with:
the areas which standard English originally came from - the south-east;
most urban areas;
places that have become English speaking only fairly recently (eg Scottish highlands, Wales, western Cornwall);
the speech of younger people;
middle- and upper-class speakers everywhere.
These Mainstream Modern Non-standard Dialects differ much less from standard English and from each other. They are often distinguished much more by their pronunciation - their accent - than by their grammar. Mainstream Dialect speakers might say:
She's not coming, or she isn't coming, or she ain't coming.
Dialect areas
There are no sharp dialect boundaries in Britain. Yorkshire dialect, for example, does not dramatically change as you cross the County Durham border. “Dialects form a continuum, and are very much a matter of more-or-less rather than either/or. There is really no such thing as an entirely separate, self-contained dialect”. But for convenience, dialectologists do talk about traditional and modern dialect areas as if there were abrupt boundaries.
Why do people speak different dialects?
This is easier to answer if we ask: why doesn't everyone speak the same? Like all languages, English is constantly changing. Some changes spread out to cover the whole country; others spread only so far, leading to dialect differences between areas. The spread of changes may be caused by physical barriers to communications. The Fens is one such important boundary, with pronunciation in Norfolk of laugh /la:f/ and butter /bt/, and in Lincolnshire of /lжf/ and /bt/. The Norfolk pronunciations are newer forms which never made it across the Fens into Lincolnshire.
Language change can sometimes be explained by external factors - eg the wholesale adoption into English of many French words following the Norman Conquest of England in 1066.
Language origins
If we look far enough back in time, we can see that the impulse for change in language has led to the growth of different languages. 2000 years ago, the following languages were all part of the same language:
Swedish, Dutch, Norwegian, Icelandic, German, English. We now call these the Germanic language family, and they are descended from a common ancestor of which we have no records. The original Germanic language is derived from a language often called Indo-European which was spoken somewhere in Eurasia perhaps 6,000 years ago. It is the parent of Germanic, but also of Hindi, Bengali, Persian and all the other languages of Europe including Russian, Greek, Italian and Welsh.
The break-up of Indo-European and Germanic into its modern descendants happened because of language change. It changes in different ways at different rates in different places. But you can still see some links between them:
|
Dutch |
Norwegian |
English |
|
|
Twee |
To |
Two |
|
|
Drie |
Tre |
Three |
|
|
Huis |
Hus |
House |
|
|
Man |
Mann |
Man |
|
|
Brood |
BrШd |
bread |
Even so, an English speaker cannot understand Dutch or Norwegian without studying them. 1000 years ago we probably could. The same applies to English. The English language was brought to Britain by Germanic-speaking invaders about 1500 years ago. Over the intervening centuries the language has changed enormously with the result that the Old English or Anglo-Saxon as written by King Alfred is no longer comprehensible to us, and the Middle English of Geoffrey Chaucer is by no means easy to read and even harder if we just hear it.
The future
The fact that English has been spoken in England for 1500 years and for just 200 years in Australia explains why we have so many more regional dialects. In Britain, it is often possible to tell where someone comes from within 15 miles. In Australia there has not been time for such regional variety to develop, though small differences are now beginning to appear.
It is unlikely though that there will ever be as much dialectal variation in Australia as in England. Modern transport and communication systems are very different from even 100 years ago. It is unlikely that English will break up into a number of different non-intelligible languages. German and Norwegian languages developed when people moved apart and were no longer communicating with one another. In modern times that is unlikely to happen.
But it is also not the case that we will all end up speaking the same dialect - eg American English. In fact American and English English are currently diverging in their pronunciation. There are changes taking place in American pronunciation which are not happening in England. There is a growing tendency in American English to pronounce words like man /mэn/, whilst there is a growing tendency in Britain to pronounce words like better with a glottal stop /b?/. In 100 years, the different accents may need a little more concentration if we are to understand one another. Always remember the importance of familiarity. Until the 1930s few people in Britain had heard an American accent. Now we take them for granted.
The two dialects are also diverging grammatically, though very slowly. In contrast they are converging lexically: until the 1950s British people said wireless. Now we say radio. 20 years ago Americans never said bloody. Now increasing numbers of them do so.
Why the divergence in accents and convergence in vocabulary?
Accent is something learnt early in our lives, a complex process of synchronising lips, jaw, tongue, soft palate and vocal chords. Once learned, it is difficult to unlearn. Accents therefore do not change as readily as incorporating new words into our repertoire. To change accents we seem to need regular face-to-face contact with speakers of different accents. Hearing accents on television does not have the same effect.
The correctness issue
Complaints about the language degenerating are a feature of all generations. Language change is a natural and inevitable process, but there are always some people who worry about it. Their reaction can sometimes be explained in social terms:
Objecting to Americanisms is perhaps because of a perceived threat to our culture (few people object to French words in English, for example;
Objecting to glottal stops may be because the glottal stop was formerly a feature of lower-social-class dialects which are now finding their way further up the social scale;
Some people simply assume that all English dialects are inferior to standard English. They seem to believe that standard English is the English language. In fact, standard English came to prominence because of its location in the southeast of England, an area that contained London, Oxford and Cambridge, the royal court and parliament. If the capital of England had been York, then standard English would have shown a close resemblance to northern dialects of England.
“The fact is that all dialects, both traditional and modern, are equally grammatical and correct. They differ only in their social significance and function. As a result of a historical accident, the standard English dialect is today the dialect which is used in writing, and which, by convention, is used for official purposes. This I why we teach children in British schools to read and write in this dialect. This does not mean, however, that there is anything wrong or linguistically inferior about the other dialects which … are spoken by … the majority of the population of England”.
Differences in language use between dialects
Dialects differ in their pronunciation (accents), grammar and vocabulary. With Modern Dialects, pronunciation is the biggest clue as to where someone comes from. But there is also another difference in dialect use - how a dialect is used and what it is for.
Some dialects, for instance, are known for the ability of their speakers to conduct conversations containing quickfire wit and repartee - eg Merseyside & Cockney. In others, such as East Anglia, slower speech styles and more sardonic wit is appreciated. This leads to stereotyping of speakers as having certain characteristics. Cockneys are valued in London as amusing, but seen in East Anglia as arrogant and dominant; whilst East Anglians are perceived as taciturn and unfriendly by Londoners. dialect speech language idiom
Other dialects
It is important to remember also that there are overseas varieties of English, such as American and Canadian English, and varieties where English is a second language, such as India, Malta and Nigeria. Here, English is used widely in government and education but may have few native speakers, leading to distinctive, institutionalised forms. Indian English, for example, has certain words and pronunciations in the same way that American English does.
2. British English
English in British cities has also developed as a result of the huge number of different languages spoken as the mother tongue. This is nothing new. The Jewish language Yiddish was spoken in the East End of London through the early years of the 20th century. Norwich was more than one-third Dutch-speaking in the 16th century, and Dutch continued to be spoken there for over 200 years.
Southern
Southern English engages in r-dropping, that is, r's are not pronounced after vowels, unless followed by another vowel. Instead, vowels are lengthened or have an /'/ off-glide, so fire becomes /fai'/, far becomes /fa:/, and so on.
· regular use of "broad a" (/a:/), where GA (General American) would use /ж/.
· "long o" is pronounced /'u/, where GA uses /ou/.
· final unstressed i is pronounced /i/, where GA uses /i:).
· t between vowels retained as /t/ (or a glottal stop, in its variants), where GA changes it to /d/.
The English of well-bred Londoners, especially graduates of the public schools (e.g. Eton and Harrow) and "Oxbridge" universities, was the origin of "the Queen's English," also known as Received Pronunciation (RP), BBC, or "posh."
Cockney
Originally the dialect of the working class of East End London.
· initial h is dropped, so house becomes /aus/ (or even /a:s/).
· /th/ and /dh/ become /f/ and /v/ respectively: think > /fingk/, brother > /brњv'/.
· T between vowels becomes a glottal stop: water > /wo?'/.
· diphthongs change, sometimes dramatically: time > /toim/, brave > /braiv/, etc.
Besides the accent, it includes a large number of slang words, including the famous rhyming slang:
· have a butchers -- take a look [from butcher's hook = look]
· north and south -- mouth
· plates -- feet [from plates of meat = feet]
· boat race -- face
· skin and blister -- sister
· trouble -- wife [from trouble and strife = wife]
· dustbin lids -- kids / children
· whistle -- suit [from whistle and flute = suit]
· oily rag -- fag = cigarette
· jam jar -- car
· mince pies -- eyes
· pen and ink -- stink
· porkies -- lies [from pork pies = lies]
· titfer -- hat [from tit for tat = hat]
· apples and pears -- stairs
· Jimmy -- urinate [from Jimmy Riddle = piddle]
· Bertie Woofter -- gay man [from Bertie Woofter = poofter]
· China -- mate / friend [from China plate = mate]
· Khyber -- buttocks [from Khyber Pass = ass]
· rabbit and pork -- talk
· tea leaf -- thief
· taters -- cold [from potato mold = cold]
· dog and bone -- phone
· loaf -- head [from loaf of bread = head]
· brown bread -- dead
· elbows and knees -- trees
· gold watch -- Scotch
· pride and joy -- boy
· current bun -- Sun
· dicky -- shirt [from dicky dirt = shirt]
· pots and pans -- hands
· jugs -- ears [from jugs of beers = ears]
· ones and twos -- shoes
· daisies -- boots [from daisy roots = boots]
· bird -- prison [from bird lime = time, as in doing time]
Estuary English
From London down the Thames and into Essex, Sussex, and even Kent, a new working and middle class dialect has evolved and is rapidly become "the" southern dialect. It combines some of the characteristics of Cockney with RP, but makes much less use of Cockney slang.
East Anglian
This dialect is very similar to the Southern:
· t between vowels usually becomes a glottal stop.
· /ai/ becomes /oi/: time > /toim/.
· RP yu becomes u: after n, t, d... as in American English.
East Midlands
The dialect of the East Midlands, once filled with interesting variations from county to county, is now predominantly RP. R's are dropped, but h's are pronounced. The only signs that differentiate it from RP:
· ou > u: (so go becomes /gu:/).
· RP yu; becomes u: after n, t, d... as in American English.
The West Country
· r's are not dropped.
· initial s often becomes z (singer > zinger).
· initial f often becomes v (finger > vinger).
· vowels are lengthened.
West Midlands
This is the dialect of Ozzie Osbourne! While pronunciation is not that different from RP, some of the vocabulary is:
· are > am
· am, are (with a continuous sense) > bin
· is not > ay
· are not > bay
Brummie is the version of West Midlands spoken in Birmingham.
Lancashire
This dialect, spoken north and east of Liverpool, has the southern habit of dropping r's. Other features:
· /њ/ > /u/, as in luck (/luk/).
· /ou/ > /oi/, as in hole (/hoil/)
Scouse is the very distinctive Liverpool accent, a version of the Lancashire dialect, that the Beatles made famous.
· the tongue is drawn back.
· /th/ and /dh/ > /t/ and /d/ respectively.
· final k sounds like the Arabic q.
· for is pronounced to rhyme with fur.
Yorkshire
The Yorkshire dialect is known for its sing-song quality, a little like Swedish, and retains its r's.
· /њ/ > /u/, as in luck (/luk/).
· the is reduced to t'.
· initial h is dropped.
· was > were.
· still use thou (pronounced /tha/) and thee.
· aught and naught (pronounced /aut/ or /out/ and /naut/ or /nout/) are used for anything and nothing.
Northern
The Northern dialect closely resembles the southern-most Scottish dialects. It retains many old Scandinavian words, such as bairn for child, and not only keeps its r's, but often rolls them. The most outstanding version is Geordie, the dialect of the Newcastle area.
· -er > /ж/, so father > /fжdhж/.
· /ou/ > /o:'/, so that boat sounds like each letter is pronounced.
· talk > /ta:k/
· work > /work/
· book > /bu:k/
· my > me
· me > us
· our > wor
· you plural > youse
Wales
Welsh English is characterized by a sing-song quality and lightly rolled r's. It has been strongly influenced by the Welsh language, although it is increasingly influenced today by standard English, due to the large number of English people vacationing and retiring there.
Scotland
Scotland actually has more variation in dialects than England! The variations do have a few things in common, though, besides a large particularly Scottish vocabulary:
· rolled r's.
· "pure" vowels (/e:/ rather than /ei/, /o:/ rather than /ou/)
· /u:/ is often fronted to /ц/ or /ь/, e.g. boot, good, muin (moon), poor...
There are several "layers" of Scottish English. Most people today speak standard English with little more than the changes just mentioned, plus a few particular words that they themselves view as normal English, such as to jag (to prick) and burn (brook). In rural areas, many older words and grammatical forms, as well as further phonetic variations, still survive, but are being rapidly replaced with more standard forms. But when a Scotsman (or woman) wants to show his pride in his heritage, he may resort to quite a few traditional variations in his speech. First, the phonetics:
· /oi/, /ai/, and final /ei/ > /'i/, e.g. oil, wife, tide...
· final /ai/ > /i/, e.g. ee (eye), dee (die), lee (lie)...
· /ou/ > /ei/, e.g. ake (oak), bate (boat), hame (home), stane (stone), gae (go)...
· /au/ > /u:/, e.g. about, house, cow, now... (often spelled oo or u)
· /o/ > /a:/, e.g. saut (salt), law, aw (all)...
· /ou/ > /a:/, e.g. auld (old), cauld (cold), snaw (snow)...
· /ж/ > /a/, e.g. man, lad, sat...
· also: pronounce the ch's and gh's that are silent in standard English as /kh/: nicht, licht, loch...
Plus, the grammar:
· Present tense: often, all forms follow the third person singular (they wis, instead of they were).
· Past tense (weak verbs): -it after plosives (big > biggit); -t after n, l, r, and all other unvoiced consonants (ken > kent); -ed after vowels and all other voiced consonants (luv > luved).
· Past tense (strong verbs): come > cam, gang > gaed and many more.
· On the other hand, many verbs that are strong in standard English are weak in Scottish English: sell > sellt, tell > tellt, mak > makkit, see > seed, etc.
· Past participle is usually the same as the past (except for many strong verbs, as in standard English)
· Present participle: -in (ken > kennin)
· The negative of many auxiliary verbs is formed with -na: am > amna, hae (have) > hinna, dae (do) > dinna, can > canna, etc.
· Irregular plurals: ee > een (eyes), shae > shuin (shoes), coo > kye (cows).
· Common diminutives in -ie: lass > lassie, hoose > hoosie...
· Common adjective ending: -lik (= -ish)
· Demonstratives come in four pairs (singular/plural): this/thir, that/thae, thon/thon, yon/yon.
· Relative pronouns: tha or at.
· Interrogative pronouns: hoo, wha, whan, whase, whaur, whatna, whit.
· Each or every is ilka; each one is ilk ane.
· Numbers: ane, twa, three, fower, five, sax, seeven, aucht, nine, ten, aleeven, twal...
And finally, the many unique words: lass, bairn (child), kirk (church), big (build), bonny, greet (weep), ingle (household fire), aye (yes), hame (home)... As you can see, Scottish English in its original glory is as near to being different language as one can get, rather than simply another dialect of English. See Clive P L Young's Scots Haunbuik at http://www.electricscotland.com/tourist/sh_gram.htm for more detail.
There are also several urban dialects, particularly in Glasgow and Edinburgh. The thick dialect of the working class of Edinburgh can be heard in the movie Trainspotting.
In the Highlands, especially the Western Islands, English is often people's second language, the first being Scottish Gaelic. Highland English is pronounced in a lilting fashion with pure vowels. It is, actually, one of the prettiest varieties of English I have ever heard.
Ireland
English was imposed upon the Irish, but they have made it their own and have contributed some of our finest literature. Irish English is strongly influenced by Irish Gaelic:
· r after vowels is retained
· "pure" vowels (/e:/ rather than /ei/, /o:/ rather than /ou/)
· /th/ and /dh/ > /t/ and /d/ respectively.
The sentence structure of Irish English often borrows from the Gaelic:
· Use of be or do in place of usually:
o I do write... (I usually write)
· Use of after for the progressive perfect and pluperfect:
o I was after getting married (I had just gotten married)
· Use of progressive beyond what is possible in standard English:
o I was thinking it was in the drawer
· Use of the present or past for perfect and pluperfect:
o She's dead these ten years (she has been dead...)
· Use of let you be and don't be as the imperative:
o Don't be troubling yourself
· Use of it is and it was at the beginning of a sentence:
o it was John has the good looks in the family
o Is it marrying her you want?
· Substitute and for when or as:
o It only struck me and you going out of the door
· Substitute the infinitive verb for that or if:
o Imagine such a thing to be seen here!
· Drop if, that, or whether:
o Tell me did you see them
· Statements phrased as rhetorical questions:
o Isn't he the fine-looking fellow?
· Extra uses of the definite article:
o He was sick with the jaundice
· Unusual use of prepositions:
o Sure there's no daylight in it at all now
As with the English of the Scottish Highlands, the English of the west coast of Ireland, where Gaelic is still spoken, is lilting, with pure vowels. It, too, is particularly pretty.
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