Semantic classification of proverbs and sayings in english language

2. Frequent discussions have also led to questioning this approach to phraseology' from a purely semantic point of view as the criterion of idiomaticity is found to be an inadequate guide in singling out phraseological units from other word-groups. Borderline cases between idiomatic and non-idiomatic word-groups are so numerous and confusing that the final decision seems to depend largely on one's "feeling of the language". This can he proved by the fact that the same word- groups are treated by some linguists as idiomatic phrases and by others as free word-groups. For example, such word-groups as take the chair--'preside at a meeting', take one's chance--'trust to luck or fortune', take trouble (to do smth)--'to make efforts' and others are marked in some of the English dictionaries' as idioms or phrases, whereas in others they are found as free word-groups illustrating one of the meanings of the verb to take or the nouns combined with this verb Cf., e.g., The Advanced Learner's Dictionary by Л. Hornby, E. Gftenby, H. Wake-field; The Universal English Dictionary by H. Wyld and J1 General Service List of English Words with Semantic Frequencies jy VI, West..

The impracticability of the criterion of idiomaticity is also observed in the traditional classification of phraseological collocations. The extreme cases, i.e. phraseological fusions and collocations are easily differentiated but the borderline units, as for example phraseological fusions and phraseological unities or phraseological collocations and free word-groups, are very often doubtful and rather vaguely outlined. We may argue, e.g., that such word-groups as high treason or show the white feather are, fusions because one finds it impossible to infer the meaning of the whole from the meaning of the individual components. Others may feel these word-groups as metaphorically motivated and refer them to phraseological unities.

The term idiomaticity is also regarded by some linguists as requiring clarification. As a matter of fact this term is habitually used to denote lack of motivation from the point of view of one's mother tongue. A word-group which defies word by word translation is consequently described as idiomatic. It follows that if idiomaticity is viewed as the main distinguishing feature of phraseological units, the same word-groups in the English language may be classified as idiomatic phraseological units by Russian speakers and as non-idiomatic word-groups by those whose mother tongue contains analogous collocations. Thus, e.g., from the point of view of Russian speakers such word-groups as take tea, take care, etc., are often referred to phraseology as the Russian translation equivalents of these word-groups (пить чай, заботиться) do not contain the habitual translation equivalents of the verb take. French speakers, however, are not likely to find anything idiomatic about these word-groups as there are similar lexical units in the French language (cf. prendre du the, prendre soin). This approach to idiomaticity may be termed interlingual as it involves a comparison, explicit or implicit of two different languages.

The term idiomaticity is also understood as lack of motivation from the point of view of native speakers. As here we are concerned with the English language,, this implies that only those word-groups are to be referred to phraseology which are felt as non-motivated, at least synchronically, by English speakers, e.g. red tape, kick the bucket and the like. This approach to idiomaticity may be termed interlingual. In other words the judgment as to idiomaticity is passed within the framework of the language concerned, not from the outside. It is readily observed that classification of factual linguistic material into free word-groups and phraseological units largely depends upon the particular meaning we attach to the term idiomaticity. It will be recalled, for example, that habitual collocations are word-groups whose component member or members possess specific and limited lexical, valency, as a rule essentially different from the lexical valency of related words in the Russian language. Word-Groups and Phraseological Units', § 1, p. 64. A number of habitual collocations, e.g. heavy rain, bad mistake, take care and others, may be felt by Russian speakers as peculiarly English and therefore idiomatic, whereas they are not perceived as such by English speakers in whose mother tongue the lexical valency of member words heavy, bad, take presupposes their collocability with rain, mistake, care.

3. The criterion of stability is al so criticized as not very reliable in distinguishing phraseological units from other word-groups habitually referred to as phraseology. We observe regular substitution of at least one of the lexical components. In to cast smth in smb's teeth, e.g. the verb cast may be replaced by fling; to take a decision is found alongside with to make a decision; not to care a two penny is just one of the possible variants of the phrase, whereas in others the noun two penny may be replaced by a number of other nouns, e.g. farthing, button, pin, sixpence, fig, etc.

It is also argued that stability of lexical components does not presuppose lack of motivation. The word-group shrug cue's shoulders, e.g., does not allow of the substitution of either shrug or shoulders; the meaning of the word-group, however, is easily deducible from the meanings of the member-words, hence the word-group is completely motivated, though stable. Idiomatic word-groups may be variable as far as their lexical components are concerned, or stable. It was observed that, e.g., to cast smth in smb's teeth is a highly idiomatic but variable word- group as the constituent member cast may be replaced by fling or throw; the word-group red tape is both highly idiomatic and stable.

It follows that stability and idiomaticity may be regarded as two different aspects of word-groups. Stability is an essential feature of set,-phrases both motivated and non-motivated. Idiomaticity is a distinguishing feature of phraseological units or idioms which comprise both stable set-phrases and variable word-groups. The two features are not mutually exclusive and may be overlapping,' but are not interdependent.

Stability of word-groups may be viewed in terms of predictability of occurrence of member-words. Thus, e.g., the verb shrug predicts the occurrence of the noun shoulders and the verb clench the occurrence of either fists or teeth. The degree of predictability or probability of occurrence of member-words is different in different word-groups. We may assume, e.g., that the verb shrug predicts with a hundred per cent probability the occurrence of the noun shoulders, as no other noun can follow this particular verb. The probability of occurrence of the noun look after the verb cast is not so high because cast may be followed not only by' look but also by glance, light, lots and some other nouns. Stability of the word- group in clench one's fists is higher than in cast a look, but lower than in shrug one's shoulders as the verb clench predicts the occurrence of either fists or teeth.

It is argued that the stability of all word-groups may be statistically calculated and the word-groups where stability exceeds a certain limit (say 50%) may be classified as set-phrases.

Predictability of occurrence may be calculated in relation to one or more than one constituent of the word-group. Thus, e.g., the degree of probability of occurrence of the noun bull after the verb take is very low and may practically be' estimated at zero. The two member-words take the bull, however, predict the occurrence of by the horns with a very high degree of probability.

Stability viewed in terms of probability of occurrence seems a more reliable criterion in differentiating between set-phrases and variable or free word-groups, but cannot be relied upon single out phraseological units.

1.3 Proverbs as a phrase logical unit

Proverb is a brief saying that presents a truth or some bit of useful wisdom. It is usually based on common sense or practical experience. The effect of a proverb is to make the wisdom it tells seem to be self-evident. The same proverb often occurs among several different peoples. True proverbs are sayings that have been passed from generation to generation primarily by word of month. They may also have been put into written form. The Book of Proverbs in the Hebrew Bible, or old Testament, is the most notable collection of such sayings. They include: Hope deferred month the heartsick.

A good name is rather to be chosen than great riches.

A soft answer turned away.

Pride goeth before destruction and a haughty spirit before a fall.

Proverbs often find their way into literature. Hany of the lower-class characters in the Canterbury tales. By Geoffrey Chaucer refer to proverbs. Miguel de Cervantes' novel Don qui xote (1005, 1615) contains many proverbs. Cervantes collected the proverbs from the Spanish pea sands. The term itself phraseological units to denote a specific group of phrases was introduced by Soviet linguists and is generally accepted in our country.

Who supposedly could early on a sensible conversation for a whole evening in nothing but proverbs. Benjamin Franklin used many proverbial expressions in his Poor Richard's Almanac", issued every year from 1733 to 1758 Franklin wrote many of them himself, and took the rest from other sources.

Proverbs, Book of is a book o f the Hebrew Bible, or old Testament. It is also known as the Proverbs of Solomon because according to tradition king 'Solomon wrote it. However scholars believe that the book's assortment of moral and religious saying, poems and warnings come from various periods in the history of ancient form until after the period of the Babylanian Exile, which ended in 538 B.C.

The Book of Proverbs is a product of ancient Israel Children, were educated primarily at home. The introduction value of many sections of Proverbs reflects the teachings of parents trying to raise their children to become successful and responsible adults. Other sections of the Book of Proverbs may come from a palace school for the training of government officials.

The Book of Proverbs has earned universal appeal because it contains material valuable to all people who hope to live a life of wisdom, honesty, responsibility, for God Hany as the book's saying have become part of everyday Speech.

Proverbs were always the most vivacious and at the same time the most stable part of the national languages, suitable competing with the sayings and aphorisms pf outstanding thinkers. In the proverbs and sayings picturesqueness of national thinking was more vivid expressed as well as their features of national character. The proverbs and sayings are the paper of folklore which is short but deep in the meaning. They express the outlook of the amount of people by their social and ideal functions. Proverbs and sayings include themselves the some certain features of historical development and the culture of people.

The semantic sphere of proverbs is very wide and cannot limit them. The proverbs describe the every branch of people's life. The fact is that proverbs and sayings are similar in meaning in spite of their diversity in form and language. To prove the said above some examples:

A bird in hand is worth two in the bush.

Лучше синица в руках, чем журавль на небе.

Nasiya saryog'dan, naqd о 'pka yaxshi.

Even if the form, the word structure and the stylistic structure of these proverbs are different they have the same meaning. The proverbs change their meaning and form very rare, they have long living features. The spreading of any proverb among people is implemented as slow as it is created. Proverbs are retest by geographic area which is going to admit it only after that the proverb can become its property.

Many scholars tried to do the researches to show the differences between proverbs and sayings in order to point out their border of limit. One of the outstanding Russian scholars the author of "dictionary of vivid Russian language" and "the proverbs of Russian nation" V.I. Dal wrote: saying is the bud and proverb is the fruit. So from this point of view we can see that proverbs express the full finite meaning and saying is a phrase which expresses the fugitive meaning. The sayings are considered to be the half part of the proverbs. We can also add that proverbs and sayings are separate genres which are different from each other. The meaning and explanation of these terms in Turkish language show that the semantically their meanings are various and this fact confirms our above given ideas. For example in the dictionary "o'zbek tilining izohli lug'ati" o'zbek tilining izohli lug'ati'' 1981y. b40 there are given two meanings. The first meaning is that it does not express complete meaning and it is emphatic phrase and wise words. This explanation can express the folk saying. Another meaning refers to Arab word "masal" that (in English means fable) was changed phonetically. The explanation can be used for emphatic phrase and incomplete meanings that is sayings.

There are some features that can be helpful in identifying the proverbs from sayings.

1. When there are tow logical counters became complete composition the brief summarizing thought appeared. That explains the lack of spare word or description.

2. to express the idea straightly and logically proverbs are characterized by their features. Every proverb values or appreciates any event both positively and negatively. Such kind of features serve to make the proverbs popular among people.

3. Proverbs express wise and complete idea and sayings express the description of something but do not give complete meanings. They consist of one compositional composition.

4. Proverbs can be used in neutral figurative meaning. This features of proverbs widen the sphere of their usage thematically. That's why proverbs are famous among different nations and people. Sayings are characterized by limited usage in one or two nations who are near to each other geographically and in non related languages. For example in Russian «заморить человека» means to eat something has no equivalent or component in Uzbek or English languages and translated by analogy. The same way of translation is used while translating such sayings as "qovun tushurmoq" and etc.

5. The sayings are the means of devices or pointing in speech the function of proverbs is to prove any event or situation.

In spite of their own specific features proverbs have general sides which also belong to the other types of folklore. One of such features of the proverbs is that they are created in language in a very long time and disappear in a long period. It is connected with the formal feature of the content of the proverb. To turn some wise thoughts into proverbs some conditions are required. And this conditions may be the followings: first of all the proverbs should describe the economic, social and politic life of the people. To the instruction to the dictionary of Dal, Dal. Dictionary of vivid Russian language. P112 wrote that among all the proverbs which are closer and more important for them and reject those which are old and not suitable for them to build a new life. For example in Russian we can find the proverb "Где хан, там и Орда", "Старших и в Орде почитают"; these kind of proverbs can be considered as old ones and are not used in nowadays, because they do not describe the nowadays life and politics. But such kind of proverbs could be changed and said "Где царь, там и народ".

Secondary the idea expressed in the proverb must have global character. It means that those proverbs that describe the characters related to the human beings are the same in all the languages.

Thirdly the idea that can be used as sample and answers to the above conditions must be complete in literary Christianized form. When the pattern idea answers these three questions it turns to be a proverb. Also it should be pointed out that the character of immediate creation of proverbs are connected with sociable structure, the dominance and non dominance of politic, cultural, social - economic life. The content expressed in proverb changes depending on the change in. of social life.

It can be approved from the above mentioned proverb about "хан" and "Орда". It either widens or narrows and it gives completely another meaning. In this term we can see that second feature of the proverb is that it is connected with social life, and it is close to people's way of living.

Proverbs serve as rare base in researching or studying of people: the level of their cultural, politic, economic life in ancient time or periods. As proverbs reflect the life practice of people over different periods and also they reflect moral norms and religious faith of nation. One more feature of proverbs is that proverbs are often used in colloquial speech of people and are extended in varied forms.

2. Chapter II. Semantic character is tics of proverbs

2.1 Classification of proverbs

As we know, proverbs do not function as mere optical phrase mongering. As a rule, they are used for some practical, pragmatical purposes in various circumstances of everyday communication. With the aid of a proverb on poetic adornments of speech; neither are they used, normally, to meet man's needs for philose can aim to provide an endorsement to his statements and opinions, forecast something, express doubts, reproach someone with something, accuse someone of something, justify or excuse somebody, mock somebody, comfort somebody, jeer at somebody's misfortune, repent something, warn against something, advise something or interdict somebody from doing something, and so on, and so forth. It is unthinkable to consider the proverb apart from such pragmatic functions.

Unfortunately, scientists have so far only some vague ideas of the functions of proverbs. Moreover, the proverb lies just somewhere on the borderlands between language and folklore, and shares its functions with both of them, and one cannot say there is a notable agreement between the conceptualism of different authors on the functions of language or folklore, neither is there a notable unity in the terminology used by different authors who have written on these matters. We accept here a simpler and widespread scale, namely the set of three degrees:

Statement > evaluation > prescription

We suppose, however, this scale should fit in with the nature of the proverb, and it has, incidentally, the virtues that it operates with concepts general enough, and allows to consider the set of its subfunctions (or functional aspects) as a unified system. The functional aspects mentioned are in certain relationship with grammatical moods of the sentence. Hence the illusion may arise that proverbs can be classified functionally straight on the ground of their "superficial" grammatical moods, so that the proverbs with stating (designative, informative) function were represented with indicative sentences, and those with normative (prescriptive, evocative) function, respectively, with imperative sentences. This illusion, however, would be immediately shattered against two complications:

1. The evaluative, (emotive, expressive) function has no separate or distinct manifestation (or "surface equivalent") in the shape of any grammatical mood;

2. As affirmed by several authorities, every verbal utterance fulfills not only one function, e.g. that corresponding to its grammatical mood, but all its main functions (or at least several different functions) simultaneously; otherwise, a context-free proverb, like any other utterance, is functionally indefinite.

The place of proverbs, sayings and familiar quotations with respect to set expressions is a controversial issue. A proverb is a short familiar epigrammatic saying expressing popular wisdom, a truth or a moral lesson in a concise and, imaginative way. Proverbs have much in common with set expressions because their lexical components are also constant, their meaning is traditional and mostly figurative, and they are introduced into speech ready-made. That is why some scholars following V. V. Vinogradov Виноградов В.В. Об основных типах фразеологических единиц в русском языке // Виноградов В.В. Лексикология и лексикография: Избр. Тр. - М.: Наука, 1986. стр.17 think proverbs must be studied together with phraseological unities.

Others like J. Casares2 and N. N. Amosova Aмосова Н. Н. Основы английской фразеологии Л. 1963. стр123 think that unless they regularly form parts of other sentences it is erroneous to include them into the system of language because they are independent units of communication. N. N. Amosov Aмосова Н. Н. Основы английской фразеологии Л. 1963. стр144 even thinks that there is no more reason to consider them as part of phraseology than, for instance, riddles and children's counts. This standpoint is hardly acceptable especially if we do not agree with the narrow limits of phraseology offered by this author.

As to the argument that in many proverbs the meaning of component parts does not show any specific changes when compared to the meaning of the same words in free combinations, it must be pointed out that in this respect they do not differ from very many set expressions, especially those which are emotionally neutral. Another reason why proverbs must be taken into consideration together with set expressions is that they often form the basis of set expressions. For example; the last straw breaks the camel's back: the last straw; a drowning man will clutch at a straw: to clutch at a straw; it is useless to lock the stable door when the steed is stolen: to lock the stable door 'take precautions when the accident they are meant to prevent has already happened'. Both set expressions and proverbs are sometimes split and changed for humorous purposes, as in the following quotation where the proverb. All is not gold that glitters combine with an allusion to the 'set expression golden age: It will be an age not perhaps of gold, but at least of glitter.

Taking a familiar group of words: A living dog is better than a dead lion (from Ecclesiastes) and turning it around, a fellow critic once said that Hazlitt was unable to appreciate a writer till he was dead" that Hazlitt thought a dead ass is better than a living lion. A. Huxley is very fond of stylistical, mostly grotesque, effects achieved in this way. So, for example, paraphrasing the set expression marry into money he says about one of his characters, who prided herself on her conversation, that she had married, into conversation.

Lexicology does not deal more fully with the peculiarities of proverbs created in folklore, they are studied by folklorists, but in treating units introduced into the act of communication ready-made we cannot avoid touching upon them too.

As to familiar quotations, they are different from proverbs in their origin. They come from literature but by and by they become par and parcel of the language, so that many people using them do not even know that they are quoting and very few could accurately name the play or passage on which they are drawing even when they are aware of using a quotation from Shakespeare.

For example: Something is rotten in the state of Denmark; Brevity is the soul of wit.

Quotations from classical sources were once a recognized feature of public speech 'times change, and we change with them'; I fear the Greeks, even when bringing gifts'. Now they are even regarded as bad form because they are unintelligible to those without a classical education. So, when a speaker ventures a quotation of that kind he hastens to translate it. A number of classical tags nevertheless survive in educated speech of many countries, in Korean no less than in English. There are the well-known phrases, such as for this special reason'; 'in good faith'.

In giving this review of English set expressions we have paid special attention to the fact that the subject is a highly complex one and that it has been treated by different scholars in very different ways. Each approach and each classification have their advantages and their drawbacks. The choice one makes depends on the particular problem one has in view and even so there remains much to be studied in the future. It is likely unreasonable to imagine that the proverb could have its say, about the matters which have no social relevance or topicality, or in situations including no alternatives, or that it could state something with entire indifference, or put forward statements which let no strategic (prescriptive) advices or hints to be derived from them. It also appears to be obvious that a proverb cannot order, interdict, advise anything without qualifying previously as good or bad (or axiological irrelevant) either the suggestible or forbiddable activity or attitude itself or something linked to this activity or attitude, e.g., its end, means, degree of intensity, speed, time, place, etc.; and if the proverb puts forward appraisals, these appraisals are, in turn, likely to be founded on some cognized truths, laws and, regularities (or current opinions, beliefs or at least prejudices).

The problem of defining a proverb appears to be as old as man's interest in them. People who consciously used them or began to collect them in antiquity obviously needed to differentiate proverbs from other gnomic devices such as apothegms, maxims, aphorisms, quotations, etc. Jan Fredrik Kindstrand Jaii Fredrik Kindstrand “The Greek Concept of proverbs” 1992 reviewed some of these early definition attempts in his fascinating paper on "The Greek Concept of Proverbs," and Bartlett Jere Whiting Bartlett Jere Whiting had already in 1932 assembled dozens of definitions from ancient times to the modern age in his remarkable essay on "The Nature of the Proverb." The last fifty years since Whiting's detailed study have* witnessed highly scholarly articles, monographs and even books which all seek to come to terms with э universal proverb definition. Scholars around the world continue to find their own so-called "working definitions," of which some of the most recent attempts in the English language are those by Shirley Arora, Nigel Barley, Otto Blehr, Margaret Bryant, David Cram, Alan Dundes, Galit Hasan-Rokem, George Milner, Peter Seitel, etc Shirley Arora, Nigel Barley, Otto Blehr, Margaret Bryant, David Cram, Alan Dundes, Galit Hasan-Rokem, George Milner, Feter Seitel. And yet, despite their erudite and important new definitions based on structural, semiotic or linguistic insights, all must eventually agree with the contention of the old master proverb scholar Archer Taylor that "an incommunicable quality tells us this sentence is proverbial and that one is not." The newer definitions might in fact fit those sentences which we know already to be proverbial, but, again in the words of the insightful Taylor, "no definition will enable us to identify positively a sentence as proverbial." A definition cannot deal with such aspects as currency, tradition and familiarity which certainly are necessary ingredients for a true proverb.

The following tentative typology draws of the material of Korean proverbs. The classification criteria are as follows:

(1) the "normality" versus the contradictory or "broken" nature of the literal sense of the proverb text;

(2) the presence versus absence of semantic transformation (trope);

(3) the totality versus partiality of the semantic transformation.

The classes will represent different combinations of those alternatives. The result is not an exhaustive typology but rather a list of predominant combinations that is bound to get us into a scrape in more complex cases, being unable to decide between competing alternatives while trying to classify certain concrete proverbs.

Proverbs in traditional Korean society differ from those of western societies, in that they are a cultural heritage of the lower class of society and therefore they are not shared by the upper class, who had for their cultural vehicle the "sijo" poetry, the three-lined, forty-five syllables form of vernacular language. Though there are some proverbs borrowed from Chinese and Korean classics, the majority of Korean proverbs were made by the common people as lessons and guidelines of life for themselves. This explains why the language is vulgar and coarse in most cases. The Korean word for proverb, "sokdam", in fact, means a vulgar saying of the common people.

Proverbs often have scatological and abusive references, reflecting the crude and uncouth pattern of life. The common people used the proverbs to describe the inner « thoughts of their hardship, to warn against the dangers of life, to vent their grievance against the oppressions of the ruling upper class, and to express the joys of life. In short the proverbs disclose most revealingly the realities of lower class life. The proverbs in this sense function as important social documents. What is mirrored in these proverbs show how poor the common people were who these poor vulgar people were, how they struggled to survive in tough circumstances, and what their philosophy of life was. These are random selections from Korean proverbs which typically portray the life of the common people. They show a picture of a poor man, who does not like rich men, and who hates the noble, ruling' class. Although he is always victimized, he is secretly longing for the days when he can have his revenge. Meanwhile he has to be quiet and careful not to make mistakes. All he can do is to help educate his children for a future opportunity.

In this paper I try to describe who the poor people were, what their identities were, how they lived, and what they regarded as the most important purpose of life. In so doing I aim at defining the core of the common culture of the traditional society of Korea.

As that trend goes on, English proverbs which are part of traditional culture lose their conventional significance. The proverb used to be a form of collective' consciousness and has evolved in its language based on traditional experiences. Transmission of proverbs was an essential part of culture and a prerequisite for education and the formation of self. Those past proverbs, however, have been driven away from education. What is more, the proverb is even on the verge of extinction. The proverb has been left as mere information which is individualistic, but not imperative or social at all.

2.2 Types of proverbs on meanings motivation

But let us leave the world of the serious paremiologist for a moment and consider Taylor's "maxim" of the incommunicable quality that supposedly tells us what a proverb is. What do non-specialists of proverbs think about them and what are proverbs to them? How do they in fact identify a statement as a proverb and what are the characteristic elements that comprise a proverb in their minds? In other words, what is a proverb today to the general public? In order to answer this question let us look at a sample of 55 proverb definitions which I collected from students, friends and acquaintances in the past year or so.

To my knowledge nobody has ever bothered to undertake such a survey, and even though my sample is a relatively small one, it should still be able to give us a basic idea of what people today think a proverb to be. To this I will add an analysis of a number of popular articles on proverbs in magazines and' newspapers which have also not been considered by proverb scholars. These essayistic treatments that appeared from 1877 to 1984 in such publications as The Ne w York Times, Saturday Review, Atlantic Monthly, Time, Newsday and others will certainly help to come to terms with a general definition of the proverb as the "folk," and not the scholar, sees it.

Before starting this discussion, it might be wise to mention here at' least some of the English proverbs which in themselves are folk definitions of a sort: "A good maxim is never out of season"; "All the good sense of the world runs into proverb"; "Proverbs are the children of experience"; "Proverbs are the wisdom of the streets"; "Nothing can beat a proverb"; "Proverbs cannot be contradicted"; "Though the old proverb be given up. it is none the less true"; "The old saying cannot be excelled"; "The wisdom of the proverb cannot be surpassed"; "Common proverb seldom lies"; "The old saying, long proved true, shall never be belied"; "Old saws speak truth"; "Every- proverb is truth"; "Old proverbs are the children of truth"; "What everyone says is true"; etc. It appears that to the mind of proverb users, i.e. the general population in all walks of life, the proverb contains a good dose of common sense, experience, wisdom and above all truth. http:// www, cog web aim Do such "definitions" still hold true today, or do modern adults in a technological society see proverbs in a much more critical light? Are proverbs still considered to be solid kernels of wisdom and truth, or are they laughed off as antiquated bits of moral teaching?

The following 55 recent definitions of proverbs might include some surprises when one considers that they come from members of a sophisticated and highly educated society. The definitions were collected by merely asking various people to write their definition of a proverb on a piece of paper without any previous discussion of proverbs whatsoever. They represent spontaneous reactions to the simple isolated question "How would you define a proverb?" Here are the fascinating answers in alphabetical order:

1. A proverb consists of a short sentence which contains a general piece of wisdom.

2. A proverb contains wisdom which has been handed down from one generation to the next.

3. A proverb describes situations which happened before and which are repeated again and again.

4. A proverb expresses folk wisdom in formulaic, short and metaphorical language.

5. A proverb has been passed down through many generations. It sums up, in one short phrase, a general principle or common situation, and when you say it, everyone knows exactly what you mean. It is often graphic, symbolic or rhyming, so that it is easily remembered.

6. A proverb is a common expression whose origin is not known or has been forgotten. It expresses wisdom concerning life.

7. A proverb is a common, repeated and generally known phrase which expresses a general idea taken to be true. It usually draws upon everyday occurrences or events in nature which are easily understood.

8. A proverb is a commonly-known, easily understandable example of descriptive, colorful, "folksy" wisdom, which, independent of the era, carries a lesson to and conveys a philosophy of life for the common man.

9. A proverb is a commonly-known, often-quoted, concise saying which expresses a generalization concerning some aspect of everyday existence.

10. A proverb is a commonly used or known phrase, expressing knowledge, a conclusion or an attitude about aspects of life that are universally familiar to mankind.

11. A proverb is a complete sentence which usually contains a moral or didactic "message"

12. A proverb is a condensed form of age-old folk sayings and biblical teachings. The proverb attempts to teach us, via the trials and tribulations of others who were not as fortunate as we. Proverbs can be positive or negative in nature; unfortunately, far too many of them are anti-women in their conclusions.

13. A proverb is a condensed version of basic opinions, prejudices and beliefs common to a group of people. These are usually in the form of very short, easy-to-re member sentences or phrases.

14. A proverb is a fixed-phrase, metaphorical statement.

15. A proverb is a fixed phrase piece of folklore consisting of a comparison or analogy, applying one set of circumstances to a different but similar situation.

16. A proverb is a formulaic expression of a certain truth which is applicable only in a special situation. Used generally a proverb is only half a truth.

17. A proverb is a linguistic attempt to express a general truth or wisdom in a few words.

18. A proverb is a metaphorical statement that illustrates a lesson of behavior.

19. A proverb is a one-sentence statement which encapsulates an element of folk wisdom; a specific reference which applies to many generalized situations or meanings.

20. A proverb is a phrase or sentence, accepted and integrated into common verbal usage of the general population, although often regional in character, which is most likely generated by astute, humanistic, albeit didactic, assessment of the human experience, offering tidbits of wisdom applicable to these paradigms of existential encounter.

21. A proverb is a pictorial phrase in which a message is given, many times a picture of an oft done action.

22. A proverb is a pithy statement or comment usually involving advice or a moral.

23. A proverb is a saying or generalization often accepted as truth; it contains words of wisdom.

24. A proverb is a saying that is known to the public; sometimes a moral or a threat.

25. A proverb is a saying with which people often identify because it is universal and meaningful in some way or other.

26. A proverb is a sentence or phrase which expresses the generally accepted thought or belief of a group and which has, through use, become of a group and which has, through use, become standardized in form.

27. A proverb is a sentence that has been developed orally and is still used by the people of a region. It has usually come about from experience and it is a statement that teaches the learning within an experience.

28. A proverb is a short and general statement which is handed down by tradition and which changes its meaning according to the speaker and the situation.

29. A proverb is a short and poetic statement used by the folk to express rules or wisdom concerning life.

30. A proverb is a short, concise, colloquial saying, easily memorized, and containing traditional beliefs taken to be true.

31. A proverb is a short, concise phrase which states a moral principle, bit of folk wisdom or similar rule by which one should live.

32. A proverb is a short condensation of a piece of folk wisdom, formed in such a way that it will be memorable. Its main goal is thus to teach, whether it be a semi-scientific fact or a viewpoint.

33. A proverb is a short expression known by many people. It usually contains a commonly held view of life.

34. A proverb is a short phrase. It is used to convey a traditional bit of folk wisdom

35. A proverb is a short saying which teaches a point or establishes a cultural norm based on the tradition of the people who use it. It is generally to be understood analogically - at least I have never heard of a proverb fundamentalist.

36. A proverb is a short, sentence or phrase which capsulate a thought about human nature, values or ideals, and is generally thought to be for instructive/exemplary purposes.

37. A proverb is a short sentence or saying which expresses a rather simple didactic concept, and which usually implies a right as opposed to a wrong action. Proverbs are brief, often not direct (metaphoric), and a great majority of the community will be familiar with the proverb and its meaning.

38. A proverb is a short, traditional statement which teaches or gives advice on a subject. Comparisons are often used to illustrate the point.

39. A proverb is a small saying that describes wisdom in a way that either teaches or makes fun of it.

40. A proverb is a statement often articulated in parallel or allegorical terms with the intent of expressing a general truth

41. A proverb is a traditional, fixed-phrase saying, usually one sentence that expresses an opinion, often considered wisdom, on a subject or recommends a course of action.

42. A proverb is a traditional saying or sentence which summarizes an attitude towards something or describes a certain situation. It is an often used saying through which one learns. A "picture" or "image" accompanies, or is within the expression, which gives light to the lesson to be learned. This lesson is often referred to as a moral.

43. A proverb is a traditional wisdom, advice or statement in a fixed phrase. It is short and precise, consists of at least two parts, and contains actor and verb.

44. A proverb is a well known saying which belongs to folk poetry and which is used by everyone.

45. A proverb is a well known spying without a known author, passed on from generation to generation, which gives advice, admonitions or a moral lesson - usually a few words to not more than one sentence in length and stated in a manner that is easily remembered i.e. rhyme, workable language, alliteration, analogy, etc. It is related to man as a whole and often begins with whom.

46. A proverb is a witticism which combines clarity and precision of thought with brevity and profundity of word usage. The statement generally applies to a situation which is commonly understood and appreciated by all peoples of a given culture.

47. A proverb is an expression in colloquial or biblical terms which illustrates a moralistic point.

48. A proverb is an often repeated and metaphorical expression.

49. A proverb is generally used to provide "wisdom" in a concise way. It spares the speaker of the proverb the chore of being philosophically original.

50. A proverb is the wisdom of many, the wit of one. This is known as defining a proverb with a proverb. It doesn't hold up too well as a definition, but it sticks in my mind. 1

51. Certain principles and conditions of everyday life are expressed in proverbs, which in turn help people to understand the world and to learn from experience.

52. In a few words proverbs explain human problems and behavior.

53. Proverbs are general statements of truth which can apply to certain instances in a commentary fashion, and which can act as wise words for future actions.

54. Proverbs are golden words of folk wisdom that have been treasured from generation to generation.

55. Proverbs are short and aphoristic expressions of wisdom which reflect basic human situations and concerns www.proverbs. com.

A word analysis of these definitions results in an interesting composite of what a general definition of a proverb might look like. Taking the frequency of nouns first, the following picture emerges (the number :n parentheses indicates how often a particular noun appears in the 55 definitions): wisdom; phrase; sentence, saying; statement; folk; situation; expression; life; truth, moral, people; generation,' experience, advice, lesson, word; principle, analogy, belief, behavior, meaning, action; language, generalization, attitude, message, opinion, picture, comment, thought, comparison, tradition, rule, viewpoint; origin, idea, occurrence, philosophy, knowledge, conclusion, prejudice, folklore, paradigm, threat, form, norm, nature, value, ideal, image, poetry, author, admonition, rhyme, alliteration, witticism, brevity, profundity, clarity, precision, culture, condition, concern. From this it becomes clear that a proverb is commonly thought of as "a phrase, saying, sentence, statement or expression of the folk which contains above all wisdom, truth, morals, experience, lessons and advice concerning life and which has been' handed down from generation to generation." This composite definition basically includes all those words that appear from 4 to 20 times in the collected definitions. But since the words phrase, saying, sentence, statement and expression simply define a proverb as a basic sentence, it can certainly be stated that the shortest general definition of a proverb is simply "A proverb is wisdom expressed in a sentence."

Looking at modifying verbs, adjectives and adverbs in the 55 definitions, the following frequency picture arises: short; general; known; common, teach, traditional; metaphorical; concise, fixed ; repeated, remembered, everyday, didactic; handed down, formulaic, true, understandable, often quoted, universal, moralistic, colloquial, memorial, learned, familiar, biblical, human; sum up, graphic, symbolic, rhyming, colorful, descriptive, old, linguistic, regional, pictorial, pithy, standardized, accepted, oral, poetic, parallel, precise, aphoristic, cultural, instructive, exemplary, small, allegorical. If one adds the 18 occurrences of "short" together with the 4 of "concise," the one of "precise" and the one of "small" it is clear that 24 or almost half of the definitions stress the shortness of the proverb. Adding to this a few more of the frequent descriptive words, a composite definition could be something like "A proverb is a short, generally known sentence that expresses common, traditional and didactic views in a metaphorical and fixed form and which is easily remembered and repeated." But again, the shortest common denominator for this group of descriptive words would simply1 result in the definition "A proverb is a short sentence."

There are several types of proverbs describe below:

Universal proverbs - On comparing proverbs of culturally unrelated parts of the world, one finds several ones having not only the same basic idea but the form of expression, i.e. the wording is also identical or very similar. These are mainly simple expressions of simple observations or simple ethical concepts, but not all expressions of simple observations became proverbs in every language.

Regional proverbs - In culturally related regions - on the pattern of loan-words - many loan-proverbs appear beside the indigenous ones. A considerable part of them can be traced back to the classical literature of the region's past, in Europe the Greco-Roman classics, and in the Far East to the Sanskrit and Korean classics.

Local Proverbs - In a cultural region often internal differences appear, the classics (e.g. the Bible or the Confucian Analects) are not equally regarded as a source of proverbs in every language. Geographical vicinity gives also rise to another set of common local proverbs. These considerations are illustrated in several European and Far-Eastern languages, as English and Korean.

Proverbs were always the most vivacious and at the same time the most stable part of the national languages, suitable competing with the sayings and aphorisms pf outstanding thinkers. In the proverbs and sayings picturesqueness of national thinking was more vivid expressed as well as their features of national' character.

The proverbs and sayings are the paper of folklore which is short but deep in the meaning. They express the outlook of the amount of people by their social and ideal functions. Proverbs and sayings include themselves the some certain features of historical development and the culture of people.

The semantic sphere of proverbs is very wide and cannot limit them. The proverbs describe the every branch of people's life. The fact is that proverbs and sayings are similar in meaning in spite of their diversity in form and language.

While investigating on the given qualification theme we have analused proverbs on the semantic point of view. We have come across on the following noticeable themes, such as Friendship, Motherland, Time, Knowledge, Beauty, Health, Work, and a lot other different subjects. We have classified some example on the given topics:

Friendship

1. A friendship in need is a friend indeed.

2. A friend's frown is better than a foe's smile.

3. Among friends all things are common.

4. Even reckoning makes long friends.

5. Who keeps company with the wolf, will learn to howl.

Motherland

1. East or West home is best.

2. Every bird likes its own nest.

3. There is no place like home.

4. Never cast dirt into that fountain if which you have sometimes drunk.

5. Don't cut the bough you are standing on.

Time

1. Time and tide wait for no man.

2. Time cures all things.

3. Time flies.

4. Time is money.

5. Time is wonders

Knowledge

1. To everything is to know nothing.

2. Soon learnt soon forgotten.

3. Live and learn.

4. It's never too late to learn.

5. A little knowledge is a dangerous thing.

Beauty

1. All that glitters is not gold.

2. Appearances are deceptive

3. Handsome is as handsome does.

4. There is no rose without the thorn.

Health

1. An apple a day keeps the doctor away.

2. A sound mind in a sound body.

3. Early to bed and early to rise makes a man health's, wealth's and wise.

4. Good health is above wealth.

5. Health is not valued till sickness comes.

Work

1. A bad workman always blames his tools.

2. A good beginning is half the worn.

3 A good beginning makes a good ending.

4. An attempt is not torture.

5. AH is well that ends well.

6. As you sow so you reap.

7. Chickens are counted in autumn.

8. Man proposes bad disposes.

9. Never put off till tomorrow what you can do today

2.3 Proverbs as the way expressing people's wisdom and spirit in literary works

A psychological method of analysis has been developed (Date, 1996) and will be presented in order to show which psychological mechanisms the proverbs use to reach their goal of giving help (or advise) for human action regulation and human action organization. Some examples will be given to show which psychological insight there is inside the proverbs. Comer's theory of human action organization (e.g. Dorner, 1990, 1991) is used in this first analysis and compared with a lot of proverbs taken from Simrock, 1846.

It can be shown that the proverbs have a much' differentiated "'knowledge" about human action organization and errors people make while planning and acting; even in complex and uncertain situations. Proverbs are "Guides to Right Behavior". This also means that a lot of psychologists' ideas of action organization are already included in "grandma's wisdom", although the proverbs use (of course) a quite different language. Yoo Yushin. " The Legend of Tan-gun." Golden Pcnd Press, 1987,- 270p. Since psychologists have used proverbs mainly for testing and differentiating groups of persons it will be very interesting to have an exchange between paremiologist and psychologists about the psychological significance of the wisdom in the proverbs.

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