Translation of neologisms in a global society

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Курсовая работа

По предмету: «Теория и практика перевода»

Translation of neologisms in a global society

Contents

neologism lexical stylistic english

Introduction

1. The theoretical part

1.1 Determination of the notion and term "neologism" and its types

1.1.1 The definition and the word "neologisms"

1.1.2 Changing culture

1.1.3 Cultural acceptance

1.1.4 Versions of Neologism

1.1.5 Types of Neologism

1.2 Understanding the importance of neologisms

1.2.1 Using dictionaries to understand the importance of neologisms

1.2.2 Understanding of importance of the neologism from context

1.2.3 Analysis of the structure of the neologism for understanding of importance of the neologism

1.3 The translation of neologisms

2. The practical part. The examples of translation of neologisms in scientific, technological, Political, pop-culture and imported spheres

Conclusion

Reference

Appendixes

Introduction

This course work is devoted to the issue of transfer of neologisms, new words that have emerged in modern English in relation to new discoveries, developments, and achievements of mankind.

It examined ways of education neologisms in modern English, knowledge of which is the main point when thinking about the value of new words as well as ways to translate, or rather the transfer of neologisms, with the assistance of various kinds of translations and untranslatable equivalents.

Topic was choosen because it is closely connected with my future profession. Problem when translating neologisms - new words, has always been and will be, because time goes on, humanity is improving and the period of change around the whole, we need new words, for the transfer of technology and science, to refer to an entirely new.

The object of study in this work is neologisms of interest in identifying lexical and stylistic features of the translation of new words in all areas (science, literature, television, technology, etc.).

Subject of research - all kinds of neologisms, especially neologisms and the difficulties of translation in literary texts and in everyday speech.

Relevance of work due to the fact that a living language is in a constant state of change and development, the most moving part of his vocabulary was composed. Change and development and is subject to increase, primarily due to language more dynamic compared to other levels of language.

The purpose of the study - Allocation of lexical and stylistic features of neologisms in the tasks performed by them as a means of communication in science, technology, and study the impact of these features to the practice of translation with the neologism.

The purpose of the study identified the following objectives:

* Specify the general parameters of neologisms.

* Understanding the importance of neologisms.

* Highlight the main difficulties of translation neologisms and identify common solutions.

* To explore the example of neologisms fiction.

Survey methodology: The full definition of the value neologisms, his methods of, species, and the basic methods of transfer.

The structure of the work consists of the following parts: introduction,2 chapters: the theoretical part and the practical part, conclusion and the list of the used literature.

The introduction to this work is based on the choice of this theme, the actuality of the aim and specific problems. Also considered are the theoretical meaning and the practical value of this work.

The theoretical part contains the basic principles of understanding the importance of neologisms.

The practical part contains the main difficulties and especially the transfer of neologisms.

The conclusion generalizes all the results of the work and forms its primary conclusions.

1. Theoretical Part

1.1 Determination of the notion and term "neologism" and its types

1.1.1 The definition and the word "neologisms"

A neologism (from Greek neo 'new' + logos 'word') is a newly coined word that may be in the process of entering common use, but has not yet been accepted into mainstream language. Neologisms are often directly attributable to a specific person, publication, period, or event. The term neologism was coined in 1803.

Neologisms often become accepted parts of the language. Other times, however, they disappear from common use just as readily as they appeared. Whether a neologism continues as part of the language depends on many factors, probably the most important of which is acceptance by the public. Acceptance by linguistic experts and incorporation into dictionaries also plays a part, as does whether the phenomenon described by a neologism remains current, thus continuing to need a descriptor.[citation needed] It is unusual, however, for a word to enter common use if it does not resemble another word or words in an identifiable way.

When a word or phrase is no longer "new", it is no longer a neologism. Neologisms may take decades to become "old", however. Opinions differ on exactly how old a word must be to cease being considered a neologism; cultural acceptance probably plays a more important role than time in this regard.

The lexicographic term "neologism" is in itself something of a neologism. For a long time neologism was mainly seen as pathological or deviating - Webster's Third New International Dictionary (1966) describes neologism as "a meaningless word coined by a psychotic" - and such linguistic standard works as Bloomfieldґs Language or Lyons' Semantics do not index the term.

In 1975 French lexicographer and terminologist Alain Rey published his Essai de dйfinition du concept de nйologisme, translated into English and printed in Rey (1995), where he gives a thorough theoretical treatise of processes of lexical neology and lays a theoretical foundation for systematic lexicological and terminological work in the area. Rey emphasizes among other things the social and pragmatic aspects of linguistic neology. He quotes fellow French lexicographer Louis Guilbert (La crйativitй lexicale 1975): "The creation of a neologism cannot be dissociated from individual creators who are integrated into a community and use it in discourse for expressing themselves in a particular situation." (Rey 1995:66). Neologisms as a linguistic phenomenon can be seen from different aspects: time (synchronic), geographical, social and communicative. Thus neologism is "... a unit of the lexicon, a word, a word element or a phrase, whose meaning, or whose signifier-signified relationship, presupposing an effective function in a specific model of communication, was not previously materialised as a linguistic form in the immediately preceding stage of the lexicon of the language. This novelty, which is observed in relation to a precise and empirical definition of the lexicon, corresponds normally to a specific feeling in speakers. According to the model of the lexicon chosen, the neologism will be perceived as belonging to the language in general or only to one of its special usages; or as belonging to a subject-specific usage which may be specialized or general."

There is thus no doubt that neologisms are tokens of a creative process as described by Rogers (1976) as "a novel relational product, growing out of the uniqueness of the individual on the one hand, and the materials, events, people, or circumstances of his life on the other."

1.1.2 Changing culture

Neologisms tend to occur more often in cultures which are rapidly changing, and also in situations where there is easy and fast propagation of information. They are often created by combining existing words (see compound noun and adjective) or by giving words new and unique suffixes or prefixes. Those which are portmanteaus are shortened. Neologisms can also be created through abbreviation or acronym, by intentionally rhyming with existing words, or simply through playing with sounds.

Neologisms often become popular by way of mass media, the Internet, or word of mouth -- especially, many linguists suspect, by younger people. Virtually every word in a language was, at some time, a neologism, though most of these ceased to be such through time and acceptance.

Neologisms often become accepted parts of the language. Other times, however, they disappear from common usage. Whether or not a neologism continues as part of the language depends on many factors, probably the most important of which is acceptance by the public. Acceptance by linguistic experts and incorporation into dictionaries also plays a part, as does whether the phenomenon described by a neologism remains current, thus continuing to need a descriptor. It is unusual, however, for a word to enter common use if it does not resemble another word or words in an identifiable way. (In some cases however, strange new words succeed because the idea behind them is especially memorable or exciting). When a word or phrase is no longer "new," it is no longer a neologism. Neologisms may take decades to become "old", though. Opinions differ on exactly how old a word must be to no longer be considered a neologism; cultural acceptance probably plays a more important role than time in this regard.

1.1.3 Cultural acceptance

After being coined, neologisms invariably undergo scrutiny by the public and by linguists to determine their suitability to the language. Many are accepted very quickly; others attract opposition. Language experts sometimes object to a neologism on the grounds that a suitable term for the thing described already exists in the language. Non-experts who dislike the neologism sometimes also use this argument, deriding the neologism as "abuse and ignorance of the language”.

Some neologisms, especially those dealing with sensitive subjects, are often objected to on the grounds that they obscure the issue being discussed, and that such a word's novelty often leads a discussion away from the root issue and onto a sidetrack about the meaning of the neologism itself.

Proponents of a neologism see it as being useful, and also helping the language to grow and change; often they perceive these words as being a fun and creative way to play with a language. Also, the semantic precision of most neologisms, along with what is usually a straightforward syntax, often makes them easier to grasp by people who are not native speakers of the language.

The outcome of these debates, when they occur, has a great deal of influence on whether a neologism eventually becomes an accepted part of the language. Linguists may sometimes delay acceptance, for instance by refusing to include the neologism in dictionaries; this can sometimes cause a neologism to die out over time. Nevertheless if the public continues to use the term, it always eventually sheds its status as a neologism and enters the language even over the objections of language experts.

1.1.4 Versions of Neologism

Unstable - Extremely new, being proposed, or being used only by a very small subculture.

Diffused - Having reached a significant audience, but not yet having gained acceptance.

Stable - Having gained recognizable and probably lasting acceptance.

1.1.5 Types of Neologism

Scientific - words or phrases created to describe new scientific discoveries.

Technological - words or phrases created to describe inventions.

Political - words or phrases created to make some kind of political or rhetorical point, sometimes perhaps with an eye to the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis.

Pop-culture - words or phrases evolved from mass media content or used to describe popular culture phenomena (these may be considered a subsection of slang).

Imported - words or phrases originating in another language. Typically they are used to express ideas that have no equivalent term in the native language.

Trademarks are often neologisms to ensure they are distinguished from other brands. If legal trademark protection is lost, the neologism may enter the language as a generalized trademark.

There is also one more type of neologisms, it is author's neologisms ". Individually author's neologisms (occasionalisms) are words created by writers and poets with the aim of making the text more expressive».

The scientists don't have a common opinion: whether to consider the terms «neologism» and «occasionalism» to be the synonyms, or not.

Rozental and Golub claim that «…we should differ author's neologisms from occasionalisms - words created «occasionally», in certain conditions of speech communication, which contradict the language standard and differ from usual ways of word formation in this language» neologisms in the novels encompass a wide vocabulary layer, starting from specific things and actions which usually have their own name (the new word is invented to reach a greater expressiveness), and ending with giving name to the new things and often unreal, fantastic characters, including those which are not substantive, that is those, about which nothing except for the name is known. It is done to make the created world more real.

1.2 Understanding the importance of neologisms

1.2.1 Using dictionaries to understand the importance of neologisms

The main difficulty in translating neologisms - understands the value of new words. Strictly translated neologism whose meaning is already known to the translator, a relatively simple task, and solved it by using the methods described below, depending on what type of words belongs to this neologism.

If the new word is not in the English-Russian dictionary, you should try to find it in an English-English Dictionary. Many well-known dictionaries, there are sections of "New Words" (New Words Section). It is recommended to use the most recent editions of dictionaries. Many neologisms can be found in dictionaries, and sections devoted to slang. It should be borne in mind that the most quickly prepared and published dictionaries of small and medium volume, but because of the limits of its word list are unable to meet the needs of a professional.

However, dictionaries, for objective reasons can not be fully reflected in his word all the words again appear, if only because the lexicographer beware included in the dictionaries so-called "okazionalnye" neologisms, i.e. individual tumors imposed by individual contributors to this case. These words are often "non-viable" and just as quickly disappear, as there are.

1.2.2 Understanding of importance of the neologism from context

Based on the definition of the term "modernism" can be assumed that the translator, the first meeting proper neologism, obviously has no understanding of the concept designated to them. Therefore, the values of neologisms often have to find out of context. In translation, the context usually quite informative.

In the translation process, words are usually emit two phases:

1. Understanding the meaning of the word in context;

2. Transfer the value of TL.

In the case of modernism, as mentioned above, the first stage plays a crucial role, and the latter is purely a technical matter, although it is important to decide the most appropriate methods for TL.

Within the general concept of context is different narrow context and broad. Under the narrow context is referring to the proposal, that is, the linguistic units that make up the environment of this unit is not beyond the proposal; broader context - a set of linguistic units surrounding the unit in, lying outside of the proposal, in other words, related to these proposals. The exact scope of the broader context of state can not be - this may be the context of the group of proposals, paragraph, chapter or even the entire composition (eg, story, article or novel) as a whole. It is very important in understanding the importance of neologisms take into account both the time broad, because it may contain a "hint".

The narrow context, in turn, can be divided into syntactic and lexical context. Syntax context - it is a syntactic construction, which used the word, phrase, or (subordinate) sentence. Lexical context - a set of lexical units, words and phrases stable in the environment which meets the unit.

Integrating syntactic context will allow the interpreter to determine the ownership of neologisms to one of the parts of speech, but understand the importance of neologism is a critical minds that lexical context.

1.2.3 Analysis of the structure of the neologism for understanding of importance of the neologism

New words tend to occur on the basis of already existing in the language of words and morphemes. Analysis of these words and morphemes can have serious interpreter assistance in understanding the value neologism. To do this, to know how to word in the English language, such as:

* Make an already existing word another meaning.

For example, the word call in English means "to call, raise, call, summon, call, phone call, etc.” However, with the development of the exchange case not so long ago he had a new meaning, inscribed in dictionaries as" call, the call option (ie the right to buy within a certain period of securities tied to the price of pre-payment of premium), and with the development of banking business - require the bank to the borrower for early repayment of the loan in connection with the violation of his conditions.

*Composition 4

One of the most ancient, universal and common ways of word in the English language is a composition, are still active and now: more than one-third of all neoplasm's in the modern English language - difficult words.

For example, carryback - "Transfer of losses at an earlier period", citiplus "hedging instruments offered by the bank clients Citibank (USA), etc. Because the rules of modern English language allows the combination of words that have the same lexico-grammatical features, which connected with composition framework, identify where the interpreter is dealing with a difficult word, neologisms, and in which - with the words, it is quite difficult. Avg. closing bank "bank, the final deal, which was attended by several banks" closing bank "closing the bank," etc.

Currently, a number of criteria for distinguishing between complex words and phrases. In translating neologisms in the English text deserves special attention spelling test, the essence of which is to consider all the complex, written together or through the dash, as the complex words and complex, whose components are written separately, as the phrase:

dividend-right certificate - "certificate giving the right to receive dividends,

dear-money policy - "the restriction of credit by raising interest rates,

fill-or-kill order - "order from a client the broker, who should be immediately executed or canceled."

In cases where the connecting word ending and starting at one and the same vowel, or in accordance with one of them falls:

net + etiquette = netiquette "generally unwritten rules of communication, or posting information on the Internet."

However, it should be noted that this is not a rule: Some sections of the American press are upping the case still further by using an even more emotive term "cyberrape", to describe the actions of Jake Baker, a 20-year-old American student. (The Independent, 1998).

Some American publications add fuel to the fire, using the more emotionally laden term "cyber-rape", in relation to action decades of American student Jake Baker.

Nevertheless, it should be noted that in many cases there is an inconsistency in the writing, even of the same complex. For example, in the case of man-made "artificial, created by man" 6% - a separate writing, 82% - through the dash, 12% - together writing.

Analysis of the components that make up the complex expression, the translator gives the opportunity; knowing of their lexical meaning, find the value of the entire set:

Graphite bombing caused power lines destruction turning off life-supports in Belgrade hospitals (Fox News Direct, 1999).

As we can see neologism life-supports is composed of two parts of life ("life") and support ("support"), then it is something that allows you to maintain life or vitality, and the suffix-s indicates that we have dealing with a countable noun in the plural. Thus, taking into account the context, this neologism can be translated as "life support equipment".

Во время бомбардировки графитными бомбами были повреждены линии электропередачи, что стало причиной отключения аппаратуры жизнеобеспечения в больницах Белграда.

* Forms of education, similar to the existing language by adding to them the various productive affixes.

To understand the meaning of neologisms formed in this way the translator needs to know the productive affixes in modern English, and able to call on members on the components:

kiteflyer - "the recipient of money under fictitious bill, the user kite" (cf. fly kites "using bogus checks to withdraw funds prior to their collection).

Very often in such a method of neologisms have satire in color, especially in the press:

... that they taste the same in Peking as they do in London or New York, and so it was that world burgernomics was born by McDonald's. (The Independent, 1998).

In this case the author wants to draw the attention of the reader to develop a large network of restaurants "McDonald's" fast-food industry, which has its own laws and phenomena, and like other economic laws are equally valid in different countries:

...что в Пекине они по вкусу такие же, как и в Лондоне или Нью-Йорке, вот так “Макдональдс” создала мировую гамбургерномику.

* Conversion

Conversion is called a functional shift words from one part of speech the other, ie Use the same word as different parts of speech. However, some scholars (AI Smirnitsky, VN Yartseva) considered an act of conversion word when forming words omonimichny their producing bases, but differ from those paradigms. For example, now on the Internet you can often see the E-mail me / us to ... Understanding the importance of this neologism is not working. Syntax makes it possible to determine the context of the transition to verb words, and knowing the meaning of the word E-mail (electronic mail) Translation: Send an e-mail to ...

* Borrowing from other languages.

Then his telefonino rang, or rather squeaked piercingly ... It is impossible to get away from the wretched telefonino wherever you are in Italy. Of all the countries in Europe, only Britain has more mobile telephones. (The Independent, 1998).

Затем зазвонил, или скорее пронзительно запищал его мини-телефон. В какой бы части Италии вы ни находились, вам никуда не деться от этих назойливых телефонино. Из всех европейских стран, мобильных телефонов больше только в Великобритании.

The Soviets had Sputnik, but the Americans had their open-plan kitchen. No contest. (The Independent, 1998)

Советский Союз создал “Спутник”, а американцы создали кухню открытого типа. Вне конкуренции.

*Contact derivation

Contact derivation is a process of education by the verb suffix truncation of the correlation of Nouns type televise "show on television" from the television "television"

* fusion

Concretion - a connection or a truncated root, a word with a word, or a connection of two truncated root:

forex reserve (forex = foreign + exchange) - "reserves in foreign currency",,

impex transactions (impex = import + export) - "export-import transactions."

* abbreviation

Among the existing species of this method of word-deserved special attention in part the reduced initial reduction, the essence of which is the initial reduction of one of the elements of design, for example, B-unit (Barclays currency unit) "international currency bank Barclays International Bank", Fed Wire - " electronic communications of federal reserve banks (United States)

1.3 Translation of neologisms

Methods of transmission of neologisms.

In Interlanguage contacts a set of ways to transfer neologisms. Figure 1 (see Annex) shows the equivalent of five kinds of new words Ia.

Transcription, transliteration

This method we you use these techniques as an act of translation would cost and is replaced by an act of drawing the sound (with transcription) or graphics (with transliteration) forms of expression together with the value from FL to TL. However this reception is actually only apparent: in fact, here is a drawing done for the transfer as a prerequisite for its implementation. Loanwords become fact, and five had to be so is the equivalent of seemingly identical with the foreign language words. In essence, this path is one of the oldest and most common being natural language contact, but he continues to play a major role at present. However, the application of the reception of our time is linked with a number of restrictions (language policy, style rules and traditions of different sociolinguistic groups, etc.).

The method of transliteration is that with the help of Russian letters to convey letters that make up the English word, for example, put - "пут (option), Nikkei -" Никкей "(index of securities on the Tokyo Stock Exchange). Transliteration is widely used by translators until the end of XIX century. To this end, the translator need to know the pronunciation of English words, and it may confine its vision.

Much more common practice in the translation so far has reception transcription, which is the transfer does not form spelling words, and phonetic. Because of significant differences between phonetic systems of Russian and English, such a transfer is always somewhat conventional and plays only a semblance of English sounds.

In general, the translator should always bear in mind that when you use the reception of transcription there is always an element of transliteration. Summing up everything said in the notes to the table, you can conclude that elements in the transliteration of transcription found in the following:

* transliteration of unutterable sounds

* transliteration of reduced vowels

* Transfer of double consonants

* There are several options pronunciation choices closer to the schedule.

* descriptive equivalents

Descriptive equivalents refer to the mode of transmission neologisms and fundamentally different from the tracing paper so that the narrative modes of transmission neologisms invariant translation is precisely the importance of foreign language units without regard to the nature of his relationship with the external structure of speech.

In other words, descriptive translation is to transfer the value of English words with more or less common explanations. This method can be used to explain the meaning in the dictionary and the translation of neologisms in a particular text.

Descriptive translation is carried out in various ways. Consider two cases.

1. Exchange term open outcry, could be referred to as "open outcry" is not confusing literalism, because everyone knows that the market should be very quick to respond to supply and demand and prices in the appointment, in order to get ahead of competitors, not to shout simply not possible. However, this method (and much less transcription or transliteration) is unacceptable, since it does not disclose the meaning of the word. In this case, the best reception was a descriptive interpretation. So, for the meaning of the explanation can be taken in a fairly authoritative Dictionary Ia. Thus, in The Oxford Dictionary for the Business World (1993), the meaning of open outcry is explained as "a meeting of commodity brokers with dealers in order to form a transaction. Traders usu. form a ring around the person shouting out bids and offers ", a translation in this case would read as follows: the method of stock trading through direct contact of the seller and buyer.

Considered in this example, the descriptive method of translation we call explanatory, as the equivalent as if the essential elements of the value attributable to the translated word. Expositive translation is closer to the interpretation of the word, but it is still a translation, and is suitable for use in the real text.

However, even with the best selection of explanatory equivalent it has such shortcomings as glibly and some optional equivalent of Fr.

2. Receive a descriptive translation can be realized and the other way. Wildcard transfer - receiving transfer neologisms, which, as its equivalent used in the five already existing word (or phrase), is not it neologisms, but having sufficient shared values with the original word. Ideally, this can be achieved semantic congruence, TL, match the level of denotative values. Examples of such an exact match between the values of the volume in the lexicographic pair of matches can be: order interval - "cycle of order" (the interval between successive orders), managed floating rate-"adjustable float."

Match of the volume - on rare occasions. More often when substitution occurs semantic transformation, TL s word is given by Fr which is distinguished by its volume or content. This transformation can be either concentric or displaced. In the first case occurs narrowing or widening of meaning when you change the words of his five-FL equivalent. The second - an incomplete overlap of values correlating pairs of words in content.

An example of concentric transformation may serve as transition country - "a country in transition" (narrowing of meaning, literally - "a country of transition"), industrial country - "industrialized countries" (narrowing of meaning, literally - "Industrial Land").

CO shifted the value of wildcard equivalents occur quite often, quite naturally, because the reception on the merits of substitutions used when compared to languages no congruence between the pairs of lexical equivalents. For example, exchange rate - "exchange rate" (literally - "exchange rate").

The main problem during the translation of author's neologisms understands the new word's meaning. The translation itself, when the meaning is already known to the interpreter, is a far easier problem, and it is solved by using the ways of translation mentioned below, depending on what type of the word does the neologism belong to. Following from the definition of the term «author's neologism», we can surmise that the interpreter, facing the neologism for the first time, doesn't know its meaning, so he often has to find it out in the context.

The process of translating the word usually consists of two stages:

- Understanding the meaning of the word from the context

- Conveying this meaning using the ways of translating language.

In the case of translating the author's neologism the first stage plays the most significant role, and the second one is just a question of techniques, though it is very important to solve it by means of using the methods which are the most acceptable for target language.

The main methods of author's neologisms' translation are:

1. Transcription. It implies the representation of the word phoneme by phoneme, which is phonetically imitation of the word. For example, Veritaserum - Веритасерум.

2. Transliteration. It means representation of the word letter by letter using the letters of target language's alphabet. For example, Horcrux - Хоркрукс.

3. Replication. Parts which form the word or phrase are translated by the corresponding elements of the target language (morphemes, lexemes).

4. Descriptive method. Here the interpreter either gives the explanation of the word or substitutes it with words which have approximately the same meaning.

Summary: The article is devoted to neologisms in modern English literature, the reasons and ways of their creation. The difficulties during their translation were shown and the main methods of translation were mentioned and described. We hope to continue our research work on the problem covered in our article because we believe it to be highly perspective and useful for interpreters, professors and students of any special interes.

2. The practical part. The examples of translation of neologisms in scientific, technological, Political, pop-culture and imported spheres

Laser (1960)

A LASER (Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation) is an optical source that emits photons in a coherent beam. Laser action is understood by application of Quantum mechanics and Thermodynamics theory . The verb "to lase" means "to produce coherent light" or possibly "to cut or otherwise treat with coherent light", and is a Back-formation of the term laser.

In 1916, Albert Einstein laid the foundation for the invention of the laser and its predecessor, the Maser, in a ground-breaking rederivation of Max Planck's law of radiation based on the concepts of spontaneous and induced emission. The theory was forgotten until after World War II.

The first working laser was made by Theodore H. Maiman in 1960 at Hughes Research Laboratories in Malibu, California.

The first application of lasers visible in the daily lives of the general population was the supermarket Barcode scanner, introduced in 1974. The Laserdisc player, introduced in 1978, was the first successful consumer product to include a laser, but the Compact disc player was the first laser-equipped device to become truly common in consumers' homes, beginning in 1982.

Home Security Laser Equipment for Outside the house

“Home security Laser equipment for external use is the most expensive equipment around. They are in high demand though because of their flexibility that can be concealed easily amongst bushes and are easy to arm and disarm.

Home security laser equipment is also good to use around swimming pools especially if you have children they can be set so that the sound when a child is approaching the pool.

Another good feature of Home security laser equipment, as I am sure you have seen in the movies, is that they can be installed so that they alert the local police, if the beam is broken by an intruder this is a very important feature as relying on other people or neighbours to alert the police may result in a slower resolution.”

Dog-whistle politics (1990)

Dog-whistle politics is a term used to describe a type of political campaigning which is "only heard" by a specific intended audience. It is usually used pejoratively by those that do not approve of the tactics.

The term is by analogy to dog whistles, built in such a way that humans cannot hear them due to their high Frequency, but dogs can. It could be argued that the term is disparaging of those who can hear the dog whistle message.

The term originated in Australian politics in the late 1990s, on occasion used to describe the Howard Government's Immigration policy. The Government took a strong stand against illegal immigrants. Some commentators argued that the stand was playing to racist fears in the community, despite the Government never using overtly racist terminology.

The term is thought to have been introduced to the United Kingdom by Lynton Crosby, where it played a role in the 2005 general election; Michael Howard was often accused of practising "dog-whistle politics" on contentious subjects like Immigration, with a campaign slogan that asked "Are you thinking what we're thinking?".

“Left and Right are Dog Whistle Politics--a propaganda strategy promoted by Wall Street, wealthy men like the Koch brothers, and the rich who hold our democracy hostage in Washington DC. Our struggle in the USA is not a political struggle-it is an economic struggle. It is a struggle of the wealthy few against the majority of the middle class and the working poor. It is a Class War.”

Conclusion

In this paper, a study in the difficulties and peculiarities of the translation neologisms in fiction, science and technological developments.

1) A neologism (from Greek neo 'new' + logos 'word') is a newly coined word that may be in the process of entering common use, but has not yet been accepted into mainstream language. Neologisms are often directly attributable to a specific person, publication, period, or event. The term neologism was coined in 1803.

When a word or phrase is no longer "new", it is no longer a neologism. Neologisms may take decades to become "old", however. Opinions differ on exactly how old a word must be to cease being considered a neologism; cultural acceptance probably plays a more important role than time in this regard.

The lexicographic term "neologism" is in itself something of a neologism. For a long time neologism was mainly seen as pathological or deviating - Webster's Third New International Dictionary (1966) describes neologism as "a meaningless word coined by a psychotic" - and such linguistic standard works as Bloomfieldґs Language or Lyons' Semantics do not index the term.

Versions of Neologism

Unstable - Extremely new, being proposed, or being used only by a very small subculture.

Diffused - Having reached a significant audience, but not yet having gained acceptance.

Stable - Having gained recognizable and probably lasting acceptance.

Types of Neologism

Scientific - words or phrases created to describe new scientific discoveries.

Technological - words or phrases created to describe inventions.

Political - words or phrases created to make some kind of political or rhetorical point, sometimes perhaps with an eye to the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis.

Pop-culture - words or phrases evolved from mass media content or used to describe popular culture phenomena (these may be considered a subsection of slang).

Imported - words or phrases originating in another language. Typically they are used to express ideas that have no equivalent term in the native language.

There is also one more type of neologisms, it is author's neologisms.

2) The main difficulty in translating neologisms understands the value of new words. Strictly translated neologism whose meaning is already known to the translator, a relatively simple task, and solved it by using the methods described below, depending on what type of words belongs to this neologism.

If the new word is not in the English-Russian dictionary, you should try to find it in an English-English Dictionary. Many well-known dictionaries, there are sections of "New Words" (New Words Section).

There are two main principles how we can understand the importance of neologism:

1. Using dictionaries to understand the importance of neologisms.

However, dictionaries, for objective reasons can not be fully reflected in his word all the words again appear, if only because the lexicographer beware included in the dictionaries so-called "okazionalnye" neologisms, i.e. individual tumors imposed by individual contributors to this case. These words are often "non-viable" and just as quickly disappear, as there are.

2. Understanding of importance of the neologism from context.

Based on the definition of the term "modernism" can be assumed that the translator, the first meeting proper neologism, obviously has no understanding of the concept designated to them. Therefore, the values of neologisms often have to find out of context. The context usually quite informative in translation.

In the translation process, words are usually emit two phases:

1. Understanding the meaning of the word in context;

2. transfer the value of TL.

In the case of modernism, as mentioned above, the first stage plays a crucial role, and the latter is purely a technical matter, although it is important to decide the most appropriate methods for TL.

3) There are two main methods of translation of neologisms:

1). Transcription, transliteration. So named because when you use these techniques as an act of translation would cost and is replaced by an act of drawing the sound (with transcription) or graphics (with transliteration) forms of expression together with the value of from FL to TL.

The method of transliteration is that with the help of Russian letters to convey letters that make up the English word, for example, put - "пут (option), Nikkei -" Никкей "(index of securities on the Tokyo Stock Exchange).

Much more common practice in the translation so far has reception transcription, which is the transfer does not form spelling words, and phonetic. Because of significant differences between phonetic systems of Russian and English, such a transfer is always somewhat conventional and plays only a semblance of English s The elements in the transliteration of transcription found in the following:

* transliteration of unutterable sounds;

* transliteration of reduced vowels;

* Transfer of double consonants;

* There are several options pronunciation choices closer to the schedule.

2). Descriptive equivalents.

Consider one of the ways of translation in this method.

Wildcard transfer - receiving transfer neologisms, which, as its equivalent used in the five already existing word (or phrase), is not it neologisms, but having sufficient shared values with the original word. Ideally, this can be achieved semantic congruence, TL, match the level of denotative values.

The main problem during the translation of author's neologisms understands the new word's meaning.

The process of translating the word usually consists of two stages:

- Understanding the meaning of the word from the context

- Conveying this meaning using the ways of translating language.

In the case of translating the author's neologism the first stage plays the most significant role, and the second one is just a question of technics, though it is very important to solve it by means of using the methods which are the most acceptable for target language.

The main methods of author's neologisms' translation are:

1. Transcription. It implies the representation of the word phoneme by phoneme, that is phonetical imitation of the word. For example, Veritaserum - Веритасерум.

2. Transliteration. It means representation of the word letter by letter using the letters of target language's alphabet. For example, Horcrux - Хоркрукс.

3. Replication. Parts which form the word or phrase are translated by the corresponding elements of the target language (morphemes, lexemes).

4. Descriptive method. Here the interpreter either gives the explanation of the word or substitutes it with words which have approximately the same meaning.

Summary: The article is devoted to neologisms in modern English literature, the reasons and ways of their creation. The difficulties during their translation were shown and the main methods of translation were mentioned and described. We hope to continue our research work on the problem covered in our article because we believe it to be highly perspective and useful for interpreters, professors and students of any special interest.

I want to show some my own examples of translation of neologisms:

1). The delegates were planed to the conference last night.

The verb planed is formed from noun plane.

So, we translate this sentence so:

Вчера вечером делегаты были отправлены на конференцию самолетом.

The tree trunks were tractored to the river bank to be floated then downstream.

The meaning of the word tractored - tow, skids.

So, translate of this sentence will be:

Стволы деревьев были отбуксированы трактором к берегу реки с тем, что бы справить их вниз по реке.

Jet propelled planes consume enormous quantities of propellant.

We will not find this word in dictionaries. We should separate -ant and find the word propel-verb, продвигать, приводить в движение.

We know that -ant formed noun from verb, so we translate the word propellant as set something in motion, in our example - горючее.

Реактивные самолеты, поглощающие огромное количество горючего.

Thus, we have undertaken, which shows the most common types of neologisms, their path of education and determination. The difficulties in translating neologisms are one of the most difficult tasks faced interpreter. We hope that this study will help to avoid problems and mistakes in translation.

Reference

1. Alexieva, Bistra 1998. Consecutive Interpreting as a Decision Process. In: Bylard-Ozeroff &al. (1998: 181-188).

2. Festinger, Leon (ed.) 1964. Conflict, Decision and Dissonance. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.

3. Foucault, Michel 1970. The order of discourse. In: Shapiro, Michael (ed.) Language and Politics. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.

4. Gile, Daniel 1997. Conference Interpreting as a Cognitive Management Problem. In: Danks & al., pp 196-214.

5. Gran, Laura 1998. In-Training Development of Interpreting Strategies and Creativity. In Bylard-Ozeroff &al. (1998).

6. Janis, I.L. & Mann, L. 1977. Decision making: A psychological analysis of conflict, choice and commitment. London: Collier Macmillan.

7. Koestler, Arthur 1976. Bisociation in Creation. In: Rothenberg & Hausman 1976:108-113. Reprinted from Koestler, Arthur 1964. The Act of Creation. London: Hutchinson Press.

8. Montgomery, H.S. Svenson, O. 1989. A think-aloud study of dominance structuring in decision processes. In Montgomery H.S. Svenson O. (eds.) Process and structure in human decision making. Chichester: Wiley.

9. Neubert, Albrecht 1997. Postulates for a Theory of Translatio. In: Danks & al., pp 1-24.

10. Nida, Eugene A. Translation: Possible and Impossible. In: Translation Perspectives 1996, 9, 7-23.

11. Rothenberg, Albert & Hausman, Carl R. (eds.) 1976. The Creatvity Question. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press.

12. Svenson, O. 1992. Differentiation and Consolidation theory of human decision making: A frame of reference for the study of pre- and post-decision processes. Acta Psychologica, 80, 143-168.

13. The Oxford English Reference Dictionary, 2d edition, Oxford University Press, 1997.

14. The Collins paperback English dictionary. 2nd edition, 1993.

15. The Oxford dictionary for the Business World. Oxford University Press and Market House Books: 1993.

16. The International dictionary of neologisms (from The Independent): www.net22.com/neologisms.

17. Williams, Jennifer 1990. "The Translation of Culture-Specific Terms". In: Lebende Sprachen, No. 2/90, 55-58.

Appendix 1

Prefixes	To which part of speech are added	The basic meaning	Example	Translation
anti-	noun, adjective	анти-, противо-	antiallergen	антиаллерген
be-	verbs, noun, adjective	изменяет часть речи	belittle	уменьшать
co-	noun, verbs	со-, общность действия	cooperate, co-ordinate	сотрудничать, координировать
counter-	noun	контр-, противо-, встречный	counter-attack	контратака
de-	noun, verbs	де-	deformation	деформация
dis-	adjective, verbs	раз-(рас-, дез-, обез-)	disarm	обезоруживать
en-(em-)	noun, adjective	изменяет часть речи	enact	предписывать
ex-	noun	бывший, экс-	ex-champion	бывшийэкс-чемпион
extra-	adjective	экстра-, сверх-	extra-hard	сверхтвердый
in-(im-, il-, ir-)	adjective	не-	inaccurate illegal	неточный нелегальный
inter-	adjective, глаголы	между-, взаимо-	inter-action	взаимодействие
mis-	noun, verbs	отрицательное значение	miscalculation	неверный расчет
non-	noun adjective	не-, не	non-existent	несуществующий
out-	verbs	пере-, превосходить что-либо, изменяет часть речи	out-balance	перевешивать
over-	глаголы, adjective	пере- (пре-), сверх-, чрезмерно-	overbid	превзойти
post-	noun, adjective, verbs	после-, пост-	postglacial	послеледниковый
pre-	noun, adjective, verbs	до-, перед, раньше	pre-historic	доисторический
re-	глаголы	снова, вновь	rewrite	переписать
sub-	noun, adjective, глаголы	суб-, под-, ниже	sub-tropical, sub-conscious	субтропический, подсознание
super-	noun, adjective, verbs	пере-, сверх-	super-sonic	сверхзвуковой
trans-	adjective, verbs	транс-, пере-	transplant	пересадить
ultra-	noun, adjective	ультра-, превосходящий обычное	ultrasound	ультразвук
under-	adjective, verbs	недо-, ниже нормы	underestimate	недооценить
un-	noun, adjective, verbs	раз- (рас-), не-, без-(бес-)	unadaptable	неприспосабливаемый

Appendix 2

Suffix	To which part of speech are added	The basic meaning	Example	Translation
-age	noun, verbs, adjective	состояние, процесс	patronage, wastage	патронаж, износ
-al	verbs	процесс, действие	withdrawal	отзыв
-ance (-ence)	глаголы, adjective	процесс, качество	disturbance, coherence	помехи, согласованность
-ant (-ent)	verbs	профессия, должность	attendant	проводник
-dom	noun ,adjective	состояние, качество	wisdom, freedom	мудрость, свобода
-er (-or)	verbs	профессия, приспособление, существительное обозначающее субъекта действия	driver, computer	водитель, ЭВМ
-hood	noun	состояние	childhood	детство
-ian	noun	профессия	technician	техник
-ics	noun	название науки	physics	физика
-ing	verbs	процесс, действие, состояние	burning	горение
-ion (-tion, -ation)	verbs	процесс, действие, состояние	revolution, formation	революция, формирование
-ism	noun, adjective	учение, теория, направление, качество	modernism	модернизм
-ist	noun	существительное обозначающее лицо, придерживающееся определенного направления, учения, идеологии и т.п.	darvinist	дарвинист
-ty	adjective	качество или состояние	legality	законность
-ment	verbs	результат действия	settlement	поселение
-ness	adjective	качество или состояние	softness	мягкость
-ship	noun	состояние	friendship	дружба

Appendix 3

Suffix	To which part of speech are added	Example	Translation
-ate	noun, adjective	activate	активизировать
-en	noun, adjective	harden	закаливать
-fy	noun, adjective	intensify	усиливать
-ize	noun, adjective	optimize	оптимизировать

Appendix 4

Suffix с	To which part of speech are added	The basic meaning	Example	Translation
-ly	adjective	изменяет часть речи	brightly	ярко
-ward	noun, наречие	направление	backward(s)	назад

Appendix 5

Suffix	To which part of speech are added	The basic meaning	Example	Translation
-able	verbs (noun)	способный что-либо сделать, способный поддаваться воздействию, наличие качества	countable	исчисляемый
-al	noun	наличие качества	economical	экономный
-ant, -ent	глаголы	наличие качества, свойства	different resistant	различный стойкий
-ary	noun	наличие качества, свойства	revolutionary	революционный
-ful	noun, verbs	наличие качества	beautiful forgetful	красивый забывчивый
-ish	noun	наличие слабовыраженного признака	greenish	зеленоватый
-ive	verbs	наличие качества, свойства	creative	созидательный
-less	noun	отсутствие качества	mindless	безумный
-ous	noun	наличие качества, свойства	famous	знаменитый

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