Traditional distance learning

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1. Introduction to Distance Learning

Distance learning traditionally has provided access to instructional programs for students who are separated by time and/or physical location from an instructor. Distance learning has been thought of as prepackaged text, audio, and/or video courses taken by an isolated learner with limited interaction with an instructor or other students. This perspective is changing. Today information technologies and the Internet can allow rich interactive distance learning experiences that may surpass the interactivity of a traditional classroom.

Distance learning can be provided in several contexts including stand alone distance learning, blended learning where the student participates in a regular class and distance learning class concurrently, and hybrid learning where distance learning supplements classroom instruction.

Definitions

Learning is defined as "the act, process, or experience of gaining knowledge or skill." Learning is the preferred term rather than education that is generally defined as the knowledge or skill obtained or developed by the learning process. However educators often use the terms interchangeably.

Distance learning is conventionally defined as... "any educational or learning process or system in which the teacher and instructor are separated geographically or in time from his or her students; or in which students are separated from other students or educational resources. Contemporary distance learning is effected through the implementation of computer and electronics technology to connect teacher and student in either real or delayed time or on an as-needed basis. Content delivery may be achieved through a variety of technologies, including satellites, computers, cable television, interactive video, electronic transmissions via telephone lines, and others. Distance learning does not preclude traditional learning processes; frequently it is used in conjunction with in-person classroom or professional training procedures and practices. It is also called distributed learning."

The California Distance Learning Project (CDLP) uses the following definition:

"Distance Learning (DL) is an instructional delivery system that connects learners with educational resources. DL provides educational access to learners not enrolled in educational institutions and can augment the learning opportunities of current students. The implementation of DL is a process that uses available resources and will evolve to incorporate emerging technologies."

This definition was developed in 1997 by a workgroup of adult educators.

Defining Elements

Several key features define distance learning. The importance of the teacher -- learner communications cannot be overstated.

· The separation of teacher and learner during at least a majority of each instructional process

· Separation of teacher and learner in space and/or time.

· The use of educational media to unite teacher and learner and carry course content.

· The provision of two-way communication between teacher, tutor, or educational agency and learner, and

· Control of the learning pace by the student rather than the distance instructor.

These definitions apply equally to high tech and low tech approaches to distance learning. Having the appropriate, enthusiastic, and qualified staff is a make or break requirement.

Two Types of Distance Learning

There are two distance education delivery system categories - synchronous and asynchronous. Synchronous instruction requires the simultaneous participation of all students and instructors. The advantage of synchronous instruction is that interaction is done in "real time" and has an immediacy. Examples include interactive telecourses, teleconferencing and web conferencing, and Internet chats.

Asynchronous instruction does not require the simultaneous participation of all students and instructors. Students do not need to be gathered together in the same location at the same time. Rather, students may choose their own instructional time frame and interact with the learning materials and instructor according to their schedules. Asynchronous instruction is more flexible than synchronous instruction but experience shows that time limits are necessary to main focus and participation. The self-paced format accommodates multiple learning levels and schedules. Examples of asynchronous delivery include e-mail, listservs, audiocassette courses, videotaped courses, correspondence courses, and WWW-based courses.

The advantages of asynchronous delivery include student choice of location and time, and interaction opportunities among the students as well as the instructor. One disadvantage is that self paced instruction places a substantial burden on the student to maintain interest, focus, and pace. This motivation can be difficult to sustain.

Three elements are of paramount importance to any successful distance education program:

· instructional design

· technology

· support

Support is often undervalued in design and implementation. Technology implementation studies show that teacher preparation and ongoing support are undervalued.

Why Distance Learning?

Distance education increases access to learning opportunities. Well organized distance learning accommodates multiple learning styles. Distance learning serves learners who are not likely to attend traditional classroom instruction (effectiveness). In some cases it can serve as many or more learners per dollar spent (efficiency). California research continues to show that it can attract and serve lower level learners (equity).

Adult life for many is complex and demanding. Many adults are unable to or unwilling to attend traditional adult education schools and classrooms for many reasons including:

· having work and family obligations that make attending a regular class time difficult, learning more effectively from video, audio, and web-based media when moving at their own pace.

· experiencing the dearth of public transportation systems in many parts of the state, needing more practice of skills to achieve mastery.

· living in locations without convenient access to traditional classes, and/or

· lacking the full confidence to participate in a large classroom setting in front of other students.

People who can't attend traditional classes because of these realities need alternatives. These adults are prime targets for distance learning. They are motivated to continue their education, but limited by circumstances as to how they participate in adult basic education. Flexible learning approaches that are not classroom centered appeal to these potential learners.

Questions are raised whether lower literacy learners benefit from the rich opportunities emerging with distributed Internet instruction? This is the well known digital divide. While the Internet broadband access is available in schools, libraries, and community centers, it still may not be available in some homes. The CDLP encourages adult education programs that are considering including Internet delivered instruction to survey its learners about their home access to computers and the Internet.

In the past most adult learners had videotape players (VCRs) or access to them. This is why video delivered instruction has been so popular in California. Now the same popularity and increased instructional functionality is being provided via digital video disks (DVDs). One challenge for adult educators is to transition to interactive Internet based instruction that offers a much richer palate of learning materials, communications, and testing possibilities.



2. Distance Learning: Basic Assumptions

The following set of common assumptions was developed for the California Distance Learning Project by a 21 person resource team. It was developed to help guide collective thinking and discussions about distance learning policies and priorities.

· Anytime, any place, any pace instruction is one goal for California adult education.

· Faced with an increasingly competitive global market, California, a state of immigrants, will look to adult education to play a key role in developing and maintaining a world class workforce.

· The potential demand for adult basic education services in California far outstrips the supply. New methods must be found to effectively and efficiently reach out and serve more adult learners.

· Distance learning provides access for learners not presently served in traditional settings and enhances learning opportunities for those not being served in traditional programs.

· Distance learning should be used as a strategic tool to support individual institutional missions. However, there are institutional structures and cultures that do not foster an environment where distance learning can be easily utilized.

· Distance learning offers unique opportunities for adult schools to provide access to persons not otherwise served; and thus has the potential to continue to expand adult education in new ways.

· Distance learning often requires resource sharing and collaboration among providers. It can be enhanced by many kinds of partnerships.

· Distance learning, incorporating emerging information technologies, provides both an opportunity and a challenge to adult schools in expanding their missions and services.

· Distance learning is most effective when staff, along with learners, acquire new knowledge and skills. Thus, on-going staff development must be an essential part of the distance learning development process.

Core Values

These principles assume that the practice of distance learning contributes to the larger social mission of education and training in a democratic society. With that in mind, the principles reflect the following tenets and values:

· Learning is a lifelong process, important to successful participation in the social, cultural, civic, and economic life of a democratic society.

· Lifelong learning involves the development of a range of learning skills and behaviors that should be explicit outcomes of learning activities.

· The diversity of learners, learning needs, learning contexts, and modes of learning must be recognized if the learning activities are to achieve their goals.

· All members of society have the right to access learning opportunities that provide the means for effective participation in society.

· Participation in a learning society involves both rights and responsibilities for learners, providers, and those charged with the oversight of learning.

· Because learning is social and sensitive to context, learning experiences should support interaction and the development of learning communities, whether social, public, or professional.

· The development of a learning society may require significant changes in the roles, responsibilities, and activities of provider organizations and personnel as well as of the learners themselves.

[Quoted from the American Council on Education's "Guiding Principles for Distance Learning in a Learning Society"]

Terminology

There are several useful glossaries to find commonly used distance learning terms. They can be found at the Distance Learning Clearninghouse. E-learning terminology can be found at ASTD's e-learning.

Types of Distance Learning

Distance learning is a modality - a broad, mixed category of methods to deliver learning. The types can be organized along several descriptive dimensions. Low tech to high tech is useful in the adult basic education field. Remember, however, that these individual types can be mixed into hybrid forms. The following table outlines the most popular types of distance learning by their characteristics and notable features.

Type	Characteristic	Notable Features
Audiotape	Audio learning tool, very mobile and inexpensive when combined with print materials.	Useful in language learning and practice as well as literature. Linear format.
Videotape in VHS and DVD formats	Visual and audio tool; the checkout approach with print materials is very popular in California.	Multi-sensory tool with linear delivery format.
Laptop computer checkout	Versatile approach to providing a wide range of learning activities from skill and drill to simulations.	Hardware is expensive and being replaced by less expensive Internet delivery.
Mobile van / lab	Resources taken to the learners, useful for work site learning and reaching parents at elementary schools. Van learning.	Historically useful way to distribute videos, audiotapes, DVDs, and other learning tools, but it can be expensive to operate. It is less and less popular as distributed learning increases.
Radio course	Low cost way to reach ESL learners. Ideally it should be used by more learning providers.	The radio course must include ways for learners to interact with the instructor. Phone call in during or after air time could be integrated into the programming.
Telecourse	Delivery over television, usually a cable public access channel or school owned channel.	The telecourse must include ways for learners to interact with the instructor. Phone call in is popular. Print materials accompany on-air instruction.
Videoconference - Two way interactive video	Electronic communications among people at separate locations. Can be audio, audio graphic, video or computer based.	Often uses proprietary software and consequently expensive. Internet models and broadband communications are making it more affordable and accessible.
Email	Asynchronous text files and attachments.	Good tool to stimulate learning, writing, and communications skills.
Internet	Instructionally delivery over the Internet, either learning modules or entire courses.	Instructional learning systems permit teachers to create, manage, communicate with, and test students online. The interactivity and ability to hyperlink to worldwide learning resources are extremely attractive. Improved broadband communications are enabling the effective use of video and synchronous communications. Chat and asynchronous communications facilitate links between the teacher and learner and among the learners.

The medium for instructional delivery usually defines the type. It is generally assumed that print materials can and should be integrated with the other media.

3. History of Distance Learning

Distance education traces its origins to mid-19th century Europe and the United States. The pioneers of distance education used the best technology of their day, the postal system, to open educational opportunities to people who wanted to learn but were not able to attend conventional schools. People who most benefited from such correspondence education included those with physical disabilities, women who were not allowed to enroll in educational institutions open only to men, people who had jobs during normal school hours, and those who lived in remote regions where schools did not exist.

An Englishman, Isaac Pitman, is credited as an early pioneer. He began teaching shorthand by correspondence in Bath, England in 1840. Students were instructed to copy short passages of the Bible and return them for grading via the new penny post system.

American university level distance education began in 1874 at Illinois Wesleyan University where bachelor and graduate degrees could be obtained in absentia. The Chautauqua movement in about 1882 gave the popular push to correspondence education.

The teaching of academic and vocational courses by correspondence became quite popular by 1900 and problems of quality and ethical practice came with the popularity. The National Home Study Council (NHSC) was formed in 1926 in part to address these issues. Accreditation of college and university distance programs fell to the National University Extension Association in 1915.

The invention of educational radio in the 1920s and the advent of television in the 1940s created important new forms of communication for use in distance education. Educators used these new technologies to broadcast educational programs to millions of learners, thus extending learning opportunities beyond the walls of conventional teaching institutions.

The development of reliable long-distance telephone systems in the early 1900s also increased the capacity of distance educators to reach new student populations. But telephone systems never played a prominent role in education until the introduction of new teleconferencing technologies in the 1980s and 1990s. Teleconferencing systems made it possible for teachers to talk with, hear, and see their students in real time - that is, with no delays in the transmissions - even if they were located across the country or around the world.

Distance education increasingly uses combinations of different communications technologies to enhance the abilities of teachers and students to communicate with each other. With the spread of computer-network communications in the 1980s and 1990s, large numbers of people gained access to computers linked to telephone lines, allowing teachers and students to communicate in conferences via computers.

Distance education also makes use of computer conferencing on the World Wide Web, where teachers and students present text, pictures, audio, and video. File sharing and communications tools like email, chats and and audio and video conferencing are integral to the Internet model.

Business and university level learners have used a conferencing method known as one-way video/two-way audio where television pictures that are transmitted to particular sites, where people can reply to the broadcasters with a telephone call-in system. Television pictures can also be transmitted in two directions simultaneously through telephone lines, so that teachers and students in one place can see and hear teachers and students in other places. This video-conferencing technology increasingly uses the Internet and Internet2.

Programs in the United States

In the United States, institutions of higher education, business, and the military use distance education for education and training. Millions of students have enrolled in television courses produced by colleges and universities around the country. Private businesses, including multinational corporations, have operated satellite television networks to deliver vocational training to employees throughout the world. The United States Army offers a wide range of online education programs to its military personnel. See for example the Army Training Requirements and Resources System and eArmyU.

Distance education offered through colleges and universities in the United States provides instruction in a wide range of academic and vocational subjects. The National University Telecommunications Network, (NUTN) based in Old Dominion University, Colorado, offers distance learning and teleconferencing resources for over 50 institutions of higher learning. Over time the technology has moved from satellite and telecourses to the Internet.

4. University Courses Online

A growing number of institutions offer complete college degree programs via the Internet. California's Virtual University lists a wide range of community college, college, and university courses offered online. The Western Governor's Association sponsors the Western Governor's University (WGU). It offers online college degrees and courses from multiple universities.

The innovative Open University, started in 1971 in Britain and has been copied around the world. The British Open University offers a master's degree in the field of distance education to anyone in the world who can access the Internet.

Listings of virtual universities and much more information can be found on the American Distance Education Consortium (ADEC) and the Distance Education Clearinghouse Web sites. Others can be found using routine Internet search methods.

The Virtual School

Several states have introduced virtual high schools and virtual schools. A 1991 WestEd study defines the virtual school as "an educational organization that offers K-12 courses through Internet or Web-based methods." The statewide Florida Virtual School probably is the most notable because of its breadth and depth. The Massachusetts nonprofit VHS Inc. creates collaborative partnerships with schools. Other virtual schools are locally based or created via charter schools. The University of California Santa Cruz's University of California College Prep online (UCCP) began as an online program to provide advanced placement courses to small and middle size high schools. It has expanded to include core academic courses.

The California Adult Basic Education Experience

California provides adult education and literacy services through a multi-provider system. The bulk of the state and federal resources go to the K-12 adult schools. Community colleges offer basic education services through their noncredit programs on some 9 campuses. Library literacy programs and community based advocacy organizations also offer very important literacy, basic education and ESL services, though in limited numbers.

There has been little motivation for the literacy and community based organization programs to experiment with distance learning. The federal English language/civics (EL/Civics) grant programs initiated in 2001 included a distance learning emphasis though there was little provider interest.

The California Adult Schools

California's efforts to provide adult basic distance learning services are recent. Adult schools can offer distance learning through two funding mechanisms - apportionment and fee based. Currently there are two apportionment delivery options - independent study and Innovation Programs.

High school subjects can be offered through "independent study" programs. Adult learners enter into agreements with adult schools to carry on independent learning in an approved adult high school subject. The learner and instructor meet periodically to review assignments, progress and concerns. The modality in which the independent learning occurs does not matter and distance learning is a very appropriate tool. However, distance learning course materials are presently limited, and most independent study occurs in learning centers or on a materials checkout basis.

In 1993 legislation was passed permitting adult schools to use up to 5% of their block entitlement for innovative programs, all of which have been distance learning in nature. Innovation Programs programs can be offered in the authorized areas of instruction including English as a second language (ESL), adult basic education, GED preparation, parent education and short term career education training.

The Innovation Program application and provider information can be found at the Adult Education Office's Innovation Program site. A more detailed discussion follows in the California considerations module.

Role of the Instructor

All California adult education apportionment programs administered by adult schools must have an instructor assigned to manage the instruction. This function cannot be delegated to second parties. Instructional strategies that include distance learning must clearly define how the learner and instructor interact and communicate. Approaches that optimize the communications are important.

Substantial anecdotal information in California supports the perspective that the distance learning intervention creates a unique and beneficial one-to-one relationship between teacher and student that is not as common in a traditional teacher-directed classroom. Distance learning teachers report that a more direct and immediate connection is formed between teacher and student through regular meetings to review progress.

Instructional Design

The delivered instruction must fit into the approved curriculum outline that the adult school uses. The 2005 - 2006 media distribution favored video based learning. Normally work books or study packets accompany the video, broadcast, and audio based courses.

Reimbursement

California reimburses adult schools for student participation based on "seat time." Records are kept of attendance and the schools reimbursed. The Innovation Programs base their reimbursements on learning outcomes. When a unit of instruction is completed, and the learner passes a unit quiz; then reimbursement is claimed. The value of a unit of instruction is based on the hours associated with a similar unit of classroom instruction.

Impact

Distance learning in adult basic education is still in its infancy. However, in fiscal years 2004 - 2005 over $23 million was budgeted for innovative and distance learning through some 81 California adult schools. In the 2003 - 2004 slightly more than 50,000 unduplicated learners were served. The graphic shows the growth in the adult school distance learning.

Effectiveness

Annual reviews of the Innovation Programs' statewide standardized program, student, and testing data continue to show the utility of distance learning. When comparing classroom data with the Innovation Programs, it is clear that the distance learning programs are particularly successful in providing English as a second language (ESL) learning opportunities. Local research data on student persistence and retention support these findings.

The Innovation Programs meet the three crucial benefit-cost criteria necessary to be accepted by adult education providers and the California Department of Education. These programs are effective, efficient, and equitable. The annual research can be found on the California Distance Learning Project's Web site. Click on "For Adult Educators" and then "Research."

Next Steps

There will be a slow increase of Internet centered instruction as teachers become more comfortable with the curricula and management systems and as more course length curricula become available.

5. Distance Learning Design

This section is a wide ranging discussion on designing a distance learning program. The level of detail goes from elementary to quite detailed.

Distance learning (DL) assumes that the learner is capable of self-direction, and the teacher is more facilitative than directive. While it is consistent with the precepts of andragogy and adult learning theory and practice, distance learning requires administrators and instructors to rethink instructional strategies and modalities, develop mechanisms to determine when and how to use DL and which learners can best benefit from it. A screening procedure to determine learning level, and a guided opportunity to experience the educational medium will help filter out learners who are not likely to function well in a self directed learning environment.

Distance learning usually comes in one or two forms -- (1) distance learning only instruction where the learner operates independently for much of the instructional process; and (2) hybrid situations where classroom instruction is supplemented by distance learning. Both models have their advantages and disadvantages. Much of our discussion applies to both models, but focuses more on the distance learning only approach.

Elements in Distance Learning Design

Distance learning, like any learning intervention, is made up of a series of components or elements. It should be described in its entirety, since it may operate somewhat separately from traditional instruction. These are some of the components to be addressed in designing a distance learning program.

· Identify the targeted learner.

· Establish the program goals and objectives.

· Define the outreach and recruitment strategies.

· Determine the intake, testing and enrollment procedures. This should include screening for self directedness.

· Provide learner orientation and assignment

· Define instructor selection, orientation, training, and support.

· Identify the instruction strategies and materials. They should fit your course outlines.

· Develop structured and ad hoc learner support activities.

· Pilot test the materials and modify as required.

· Determine the learner data collection requirements including learning gains and learning achievements and affective measures of motivation and self esteem.

· Define the program data collection requirements.

· Design a self correcting program evaluation system. Include systematic learner and instructor feedback in the system.

· Implement and modify the distance learning program as experience indicates.

· Report findings and conclusions to key stakeholders.

It is not unusual for an adult education program to initially experiment with distance learning, using a small, low tech intervention. The CDLP staff encourages this approach and recommend using the video checkout model as the intervention.

The Constructivist Approach

A learning model becoming accepted for distance learning is based on the constructivist theory that views learning as socially constructed and situated in a specific context -- the learner constructs meaning for him or herself. The model is based on the presumption that learning occurs in collaboration with others and in the social world of the learners. The design challenge becomes one of creating learning modules and curricula that require the learner to mediate and construct meaning with the help of others. More emphasis is placed on facilitating the learning and learning experience and less on the content. The communications and interactive aspects of learning take on greater importance.

In our judgment this approach has particular utility with higher level English as a second language (ESL) and adult basic education instruction (ABE) design and less for GED preparation. For more information go to constructivism.

Ties to Your Technology Infrastructure

Initially distance learning design may or may not be tied to creating the organization's technology infrastructure. However, over time the ability to provide learning alternatives to adults outside the traditional classroom requires evaluating technological alternatives.

The technology utilization literature identifies two viewpoints on how to build a organization's technological infrastructure. Usually it's believed that a organization with fewer rules, greater independence, and feeling of self security makes innovation and creativity more likely. This view implies that technological innovation is a series of discrete technical decisions that will occur based on informal relations in the organization. This view holds that one cannot systematically plan technological changes.

However, given the cost and implications for poor technology planning decisions, it is important that technological changes should take place through more formally planned strategies and plans, i.e. innovation. Successful innovation of a technology strategy depends on the infrastructure and culture of the organization. New products or initiatives usually are dependent on knowledge being brought in from outside by the infrastructure. Therefore, the administrator's strategic challenges are to determine:

· the context for the technology planning (CDLP staff prefer a learner centered perspective)

· how technologies are chosen, and

· how to gain information from similar organizations that test and implement new technologies.

In practice most adult basic education innovation trails far behind in adapting new technologies and instructional strategies that include learning technologies. CDLP staff encourages adult education programs to develop learner centered technology plans that help identify opportunities and problems, resources, and priorities. The model is presented in the Planning and Administration module.

Learning Technology Standards

Standards are important to the development of new processes and technologies. They insure interoperability and design conformance. Three organizations are the focal point for learning technology standards:

· the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Inc. (IEEE)

· the International Organization of Standardization (ISO), and

· the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC)

The IEEE hyperlink provides information on the Learning Technology Standards Committee working groups.

In addition the IMS Global Learning Consortium Inc. (IMS) was formed to provide standards for learning technology and especially content metadata and has moved into other areas such as content packaging. Much of the current work surrounds creating reuseable learning content or objects. The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) also provides leadership in extending the Internet.

The Open Knowledge Initiative (OKI) is a software-development project of several colleges and universities to develop software that will help professors build Web pages for their courses and manage administrative functions like grading and testing. In the process, they are developing a set of technical standards, known as application programming interfaces, or API's, which are rules for how the software will operate. One goal of the initiative is to build free course-management software.

Supporting Innovation

In order to maintain the innovation process, the adult education provider should communicate regularly with other organizations involved in similar activities. Fostering this network development process has been central to California's development strategy. This is referred to as fostering and supporting distance learning "pioneers."

The infrastructure of innovation and invention is based on two things:

· the network of relationships, and

· the dominant design and process

Links between adult education providers, outside innovators, and content development groups will insure a long term process. Some technology changes are not discovered in the networks but in an ad hoc environment. Openness to these possibilities is important. Keep in mind that even though the adult basic education sector is well developed, it does not imply a well developed technological infrastructure. distance education virtual school

Strategic Implications for a Distance Learning Infrastructure

The adult education provider should have two main concerns:

· to get connected to the communications infrastructure

· to keep the infrastructure developing to insure progress

Technological strategy is also political, especially in the early stages of development when one has to choose a way to proceed. If one participates in this political process, the chance of benefiting will increase. It is essential that administrators know where technology is situated in the general strategy (i.e. the big picture).

General Guidelines

One distance learning goal is to have course curricula offered in multiple formats -- teacher led, CD-ROM and DVD, video, and Internet. These choices when blended appropriately can effectively serve the learning styles and life circumstances of most potential learners.

The right technology used appropriately can greatly enhance the learning experience. But instructional technology used in the wrong way can result in a waste of time and money. The key to choosing the right technology to support learning is to match the technology to the learner and the learning context - both in terms of learners' skills and abilities and well their access to the technology.

Accessibility is a critical concern. The best designed Web site with the latest multimedia technologies is of no use to someone who does not have access to the Internet, does not have the required plug-ins, or does not know how to download them.

Learning materials and systems cannot be separated from the courses and venues in which they will be used. Consequently, the materials development process, whenever possible, should be integrated into the instructional planning process. This requires materials designers to engage in an overall curriculum planning process to help ensure focus and product compatibility

Instructional design practice is organized from a set of objectives or learning outcomes. From these outcomes come the curriculum, strategies and skills, and comprehension expectations. The contexts vary widely based on the subject matter.

Course Definition

A course is a collection of closely related instructional components that have structure and sequence aimed at assisting learners to develop specific knowledge and skills. A course of study is designed for the characteristics of a specific learner group to meet their specific needs and interests. A program of study may consist of multiple courses.

For our purposes, a course may be of any duration and it need not have sub-units, however they are likely. It could be a semester-long citizenship course, a vocational training program, a pre-employment job preparation course, an online self-directed certification course, or a self-paced CD-ROM or videotape series. In most cases, media will support a course that is mediated by an instructor.

Unit Definition

All but the shortest courses consist of series of logical units of information. Like chapters in a book, these units include related materials that in sum make up the course. Units design may be in a sequential order or stand alone, not requiring any specific order. A course could mix units that are sequential and non-sequential.

Units are typically comprised of multiple lessons, which are where instructional materials are presented. In the case of a stand-alone video series, the course may be comprised of multiple videotapes (units) that have several different lessons on each tape.

Lesson Definition

A lesson is a discreet instructional session that includes a limited number of learning tasks designed to meet the needs of students based on the course content. Lessons are developed to cover a logical segment of learning tasks. Instructional materials are used at the lesson level.

Technology Adoption

During periods of rapid social and technological evolution, change and disruptive technologies are experienced and utilized by different people and organizations at different times. Unfortunately, in the CDLP experience, adult basic educators are late in perceiving, understanding, and adopting new instructional technologies. Consequently, adult basic education providers should conservatively develop our tools and techniques.

The accepted model for stages of technology adoption is a bell curve with the stages of the technology adoption life cycle described from left to right as:

Early Market	Main Street	End of Life

Innovators and Early Adoptors fall within the Early Market group. Early Majority and Late Majority users are in the Main Street users group while the Laggards fall within the End of Life grouping. The tools and resources available to support distance learning design are determined, in part, based on where the delivery technology is in the technology life cycle. Usually in will be in the "main street" or "end of life" stage for adult basic education.

The implications for adult education are that proven, widely accepted technologies are generally used, but their usefulness may be limited by emerging, more powerful technologies.

Supporting Lifelong Learning

Implicit in all product development is the goal of supporting knowledge integration and lifelong learning. This also entails developing students' skills at autonomous learning since students need to continue to integrate and reflect on their understanding subsequent to their science instruction to become lifelong learners. Thus, both curriculum and assessment activities need to encourage students to reflect on their own learning. If ideas are viewed as right or wrong, students may lack the motivation to reflect and solely seek to learn what is right. Instruction and assessment that support students' reflective processes and their understanding of their own alternative views can contribute to lifelong learning.

Targeted Learners

At the start of this section it is noted that the ideal distance learner is expected to be more self directed than the average adult basic learner. However, many practitioners have told us that, while they agree with this perspective, their target learners are those who cannot otherwise access learning. Within that group, some find out that the absence of structure is not useful for them. Still it is important to try to screen out learners who would not be comfortable is a self directed learning environment. This is done during the enrollment and orientation process.

Build or Buy?

Distance learning materials can be developed from scratch, purchased, or adopted. Regardless of the approach, the resulting product should be based on firm design and learning principles.

In most cases adult educators will utilize existing materials (video tapes, online resources) and add activities and communications tasks that "wrap around" the central products. This is done to enhance the product, adopt it to meet established standards or frameworks, or adopt it to the learners who will be using them.

Creating Distance Learning Materials

Learning Principles

A 1999 research document entitled - Materials Development Framework For Courses Targeting Low Literacy and Limited-English Speaking Adults - sets the basis for our design strategies. The full version can be found at www.cyberstep.org. Click on Papers.

The adult learning principles identified are:

1. Adult learners are goal driven.

2. Language and literacy are social processes that involve interaction with others.

3. Language and literacy development require risk taking.

4. Language and literacy develop when the target language is slightly above the current level of proficiency of the user.

5. Language and literacy development require focus, engagement and practice.

6. Language and literacy are multi-dimensional and require different kinds of interactions with different kinds of genres.

7. Language and literacy develop through interactions with tasks that require cognitive involvement.

8. Language and literacy develop more deeply if skills are connected to an overall topic or theme.

These principles should be kept in mind in all design work.

Likewise the state of Massachusetts System for Adult Basic Education Support (SABES) has developed an evolving set of resources to help address its state standards. These resources have broad application in any state.

Learning Outcomes and Materials Development Objectives

Learner outcomes specify student behaviors desired at a particular developmental point. These outcomes provide the basis for creating worthwhile learning experiences, for setting appropriate expectations, and for assessing the extent of learning attained.

Distance Learning Materials Should:

1. Successfully engage adults functioning at low literacy and limited English levels in improving their literacy and language skills and capabilities.

Are the materials appropriate?

Are the materials considered worthwhile?

1.1 Do the materials match up with learners' goals?

1.2 Which features are most successful in engaging these learners?

1.3 How do learners, instructors, and other facilitators respond to the materials components?

1.4 How are learners and facilitators using the materials?

1.5 How are the materials related to other materials and integrated into instructional strategies?

2. Function effectively making use of multi-media features to foster learning.

2.1 How easy to use are the materials?

2.2 Do learners take advantage of what specific technologies offer?

2.3 Which pathways and resources do learners make the most use of?

2.4 What pathways and resources might be missing?

2.5 What is an effective time commitment to expect from users?

2.6 What are the hardware, software, and cognitive problems that learners experience that inhibit use?

2.7 What supports do learners use and need to use these materials effectively?

3. Have a significant, positive impact on learners' performance

3.1 Do the materials do what they claim?

3.2 Do materials teach language and literacy, and if so which dimensions are addressed?

3.3 What product focuses are most meaningful for learners and learning facilitators?

3.4 In which skills development areas do learners achieve most through these materials?

4. Be useful and effective for learners and learning facilitators in different learning contexts

4.1 What preparation is needed for instructors and facilitators to work productively with the materials?

4.2 What preparation or support is needed by learners with different learning profiles?

4.3 What problems do teachers/facilitators experience in working with learners on these materials?

4.4 How do instructors use the materials to work with students?

5. Suggest a materials development framework beyond the current work?

5.1 What are steps in product testing that will provide short and longer term utility?

5.2 How can we document learning achievement?

5.3 What technology features are important for short, medium, and longer term acceptability?

Product Phase	Focus of Input	Respondents
Concept	Why is the product needed? What will it help learners do? How does the project fit into existing products? What are projected learning outcomes?	Funders, Peers
Proof of concept (i.e. rapid prototype demonstration)	Is the approach sound, can the product be implemented, What are product standards/ what would successful implementation look like, Who would best benefit from the product?	Funders, Peers, Product, Media and Subject Matter Specialists, Instructors, Learners
Initial development phase complete (alpha test)	Does it implement the key design standards? Are the product standards sufficient to accomplish project goals, Does the product function as intended, Is the learners' response to the product as intended? Who functions best with the product, what can be strengthened about it? What sort of outcomes might be achieved with it? What sort of support is necessary to use it and sustain outcomes?	Product, media and subject matter specialists, instructors, learners, program administrators, resource professionals
Pre-release (beta test)	What outcomes are achieved with it? What are use characteristics and problems? What sort of support is necessary for use? What bugs need to be fixed in the product?	Instructors, Learners, program administrators, resource professionals
On-going, for use at times strategic for product enhancement and versioning	How are users needs changing? What sorts of augmentation are necessary to the product to increase relevance and enhance or sustain learning? What sorts of augmentation are necessary to enhance power of instructor facilitation with the product? What bugs need to be fixed.	Instructors, learners, resource professionals

Key to a successful, cost-effective strategy is creating a specific plan for each product which takes into account the development phase, the specific feedback issues under consideration, and how best to provide cost-efficient data.

Involving Users in Materials Development

Involving potential users, especially learners, in multi-media product development is extremely important. The context for this involvement usually is formative research. Formative research is different from some other kinds of research (e.g. summative or descriptive research) in that it solicits feedback for the purpose of making necessary changes based on that input. Formative research designs vary depending on the themes being explored, specific questions being asked, subject, available time, and types of respondents.
Whatever the specific anchoring questions, however, successful formative research requires:

· strategic involvement of key stakeholders in providing feedback

· involvement of representative product users and stakeholders

· cost-effective research methods which yield the data necessary for decision making

· rich, systematic and timely data on strategically significant questions, and

· a strategy for applying the results of the research to guide and enhance product design

Note the last bullet in particular. Formative research assumes that the product being evaluated can be changed and improved. Its aim is make the product(s) as useful and productive as possible. Therefore the research plans can, do, and should change. If thorough product testing is desired for certification, documentation, product improvement, or versioning, a systematic research plan is necessary in order to keep the research cost-effective.

Strategic Stakeholder Involvement

There are multiple points to involve users in product development. The following list identifies stages at which stakeholder involvement is very useful. They are:

· product concept

· the proof of concept (i.e. rapid prototype demonstration)

· initial development phase (alpha test)

· pre-release (beta test)

· on-going feedback (delta test)

Stakeholders can include experts in the field, instructors, learners, resource teachers, teacher trainers, administrators, paraprofessionals, and learners' family members and networks. Not all these stakeholders can be involved equally in each stage of product development. Make your choices according to the desired outcomes.

Cost Effective Research Strategies

Each stage of product development poses different formative research questions and therefore call for distinct methods which involve different subsets of stakeholders. The range of data collection strategies used in formative research include:

· paper/desk review of the product or product potential

· surveys of potential users attitudes and product orientations, with background and experience

· interviews or one-on-one meetings

· group interviews or focus groups

· user observations employing 'thinking-out-loud' learner interaction strategies

· data on learners' use of resources captured directly by the technology application

· product integrated feedback forms or mechanisms

Among these methods the focus group techniques tend to elicit more information than others. Focus groups use oppositional interview strategies (asking members of the group to formulate pro and con responses that address each others' concerns), user observations employing 'thinking-out-loud' learner interaction strategies (asking learners why they are doing something a certain way and what a specific behavior means to them), and product-integrated feedback forms used in situations where observers query learners about their performance and that performance also is captured by the application.

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