English neologisms in the modern vocabulary

The feature of truncations is their use is limited in the spoken language.

Truncation is most typical for different types of slang (school, sports, newspaper).

Among the examples cited above prevail newspaper clipping. So, upmanship often appears in English newspapers, and is used in advertisements, in the recommendations of how to achieve success.

For example: Upmanship is the art of being one up on all the others. Hospital upmanship: My Doc is better `n yours. Among the reductions, large place occupied abbreviations and acronyms. VCR (vidio-cassette recorder), TM (transcendental meditation), PC (personal computer), MTV (Music Television). Typically, the abbreviations are spelled.

When the abbreviation is found only on the letter, it reads like a complete word. A new is the lack of periods after each letter abbreviations that brings them closer to the acronyms. Acronyms are pronounced as complete words. For example: MIPS (million instructions per second) миллион инструкций в секунду (computer term); CAD (computer-aided design) - in medicine.

A big attention is for the acronyms that are used in the field of education: TEFL (Teaching English as a Foreign Language); everyone knows the international organization of teachers of English as a Foreign Language IATEFL (International Association of Teachers English as a Foreign Language) and the US-based TESOL (Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages); in the environmental field: UNEP (United Nations Environmental Program).

Borrowing from other languages

Borrowing the words of others is a common method of forming neologisms. It used in the absence of an identical word in the target language. We give some examples.

«The Soviets had Sputnik, but the Americans had their open-plan kitchen. No contest ». Советский Союз создал "Спутник", а американцы создали кухню открытого типа. Out of competition.

Contact derivation

Contact derivation is the process of formation of verbs by truncating the suffix of correlative nouns. For example, televise - показывать по телевидению from television - телевидение.

Symphysis.

Symphysis is the connection or a truncated root of one word to a whole word or a combination of two truncated roots:

forex reserve (forex = foreign + exchange) - резервы в иностранной валюте;

impex transactions (impex = import + export) - экспортно-импортные сделки

Abbreviation

Among the existing types of word-formation a special attention have partly abbreviated acronyms, the essence of which is the acronym of one of the components, eg, B-unit (Barclays currency unit) международная денежная единица банка "Барклейз бэнк интернешнл", Fed Wire - система электронной связи федеральных резервных банков (США).

Blends

New words can also be formed from existing ones by various blending processes: for example, motel (from motor hotel), infomercial (from information and commercial), edutainment (from education and entertainment), brunch (from breakfast and lunch), cafetorium (from cafeteria and auditorium), netiquette (from network etiquette), trashware (from trash and software), and bit (from binary and digit)

Generified Words

The words Kleenex and Xerox illustrate another technique for creating new words, namely, using specific brand names of products as names for the products in general (generification). Hence Kleenex, a brand name for facial tissue, has come to denote facial tissue in general. Xerox is the name of the corporation that produces a well-known photocopying machine, and much to the dismay of the company, the term Xerox has lost its specific brand-name connotation and has come to be used to describe the process of photocopying in general.

Borrowing: Direct

Yet another way to expand our vocabulary is to "borrow" words from other languages. Speakers of English aggressively borrow words from other languages. We have kindergarten (German), and sushi (Japanese) among many others.

Borrowing: Indirect

An interesting type of borrowing occurs when an expression in one language is translated literally into another language. For example, the borrowed terms firewater and iron horse are literal translations of Native American words meaning "alcohol" and "railroad train".

Semantic Drift

Over time the meanings of words can change, or drift. A rather striking example of change has occurred in the word lady. Half of it was the Old English word for "bread" (related to the modern word loaf) and dighe was the word for "kneader" (related to the modern word dough). Thus, the original "kneader of bread" has experienced a rather remarkable increase in status.

Compounds and Compounding

In English (as in many other languages) new words can be formed from already existing words by a process known as compounding, in which individual words are "joined together" to form a compound word. For example, the noun ape can be joined with the noun man to form to form the compound noun ape-man; the adjective red can be joined with the adjective hot to form the compound adjective red-hot.

Compounds are not limited to two words, as shown by examples such as bathroom towel-rack and community center finance committee. Indeed, the process of compounding seems unlimited in English: starting with a word like sailboat, we can easily construct the compound sailboat rigging, from which we can in turn create sailboat rigging design, sailboat rigging design training, sailboat rigging design training institute, and so on.

The Agentive Suffix '-er'

Agentive nouns are formed by the word formation rule "Add the suffix '-er' to a verb".

The Diminutive Suffix '-y/-ie'

English has a so-called diminutive suffix, usually spelled -y (or -i.e.), which is added to nouns such as those in the following pairs: dad-daddy, mom-mommy, dog-doggy, and horse-horsie.

How to Translate Neologisms

Dictionaries lag behind changes in languages. New words, figurative words and phrases, slang and nonce words are coined in the language so swiftly that no dictionary can and should register them immediately. Indeed, the number of neologisms appearing in mass media during a year amounts to tense of thousands in developed languages. For example:

English: schoolteacherly

Russian: студент-платник (a student who pays tuition fees)

Therefore, translators have to find out the meaning of very new neologisms mainly based on the context (a sentence, paragraph, chapter or even the whole document) in which the neologism is used. Neologisms are usually formed on the basis of words and morphemes that already exist in the language. The analysis of these words and morphemes is an additional helpful tool in finding out the meaning of the neologism. For this purpose, the translator should remember word-formation rules, in particular the following:

1. Giving words new affixes (i.e. suffixes, prefixes, and endings attached to words/word stems to form new words), for example:

English: losingest, googling, telescam

Russian: постсоветский (post-Soviet), мобильник (a mobile phone), наркотизм (narcotism)

2. Creation of new meaning of existing words, for example:

English: footprint - an impact on our planet

Russian: мыло ("an email" - the new IT-slang meaning; "a soap" - the traditional meaning)

3. Loanwords (mostly professional and scientific terms borrowed from other languages), for example:

English: glasnost (from Russian: publicity, openness), ponzu (from Japanese: a sauce made with soy sauce and citrus juice), chuddies (from Hindi: underpants)

Russian: бизнес-ланч (from English: a business lunch), секьюрити (from English: a bodyguard), спичрайтер (from English: a speech writer)

4. Semi-abbreviations (words made up of parts of other words), abbreviations and acronyms, for example:

English: biosecurity, nomophobia (an abbreviation for "no-mobile-phone phobia" which means a fear of being out of mobile phone contact), FSU (the Former Soviet Union)

Russian: СПИД (AIDS), страхагент (an insurance agent), туроператор (a tour operator)

Ways of translating neologisms:

- Selection of an appropriate analogue in a target language

- Transcription and transliteration

- Loan translation and calque

- Explanatory translation and descriptive translation

Thus, neologisms are usually formed under the laws of the relevant language, in his productive patterns of word formation. However, literary books are sometimes created neologisms and unproductive ways of word formation. In such cases, the effective power of word-formation means becomes more clear, vivid, tangible. The facilities themselves forming new words so often act as a stylistic device.

Thus, on the one hand, recently in the language there are multiple ways to form a new vocabulary (affixation, compounding, blending, abbreviation, conversion) reflecting semantic and word-formation processes in the language during this period.

On the other hand, the formation of semantic neologism is the result of linguistic and creative activity related to the transition of the new units of a particular individual consumption in the use of language community. The most typical ways of formation of neologisms in modern English are compounding, conversion and change the meanings of words.

neologism modern vocabulary text

1.3 Translation of neologisms

Neologisms are new words that appear in the language as a result of various changes in society, culture, science and art. It is necessary to distinguish between two kinds of neologisms, new words and new meanings that emerged from the "old" words. Both species are difficult to translate, because these words and meanings can not be found in ordinary English-Russian dictionaries and not always to be found even in the newest English-English dictionaries. Each translator well knowns that any dictionary behinds in registering new words, and meanings of at least several years. It suffices to compare dictionaries before the Second World War and the post-war period to make sure stark contrast. But behind the dictionary - this is not the most serious problem for the translator.

Another factor, hindering the registration of neologisms in the Anglo-Russian and in English-English dictionaries is their temporary, fleeting existence in a language that is observed the same phenomenon as in the slang. Neologisms and other figurative words and phrases, as well, as slangisms born so quickly, especially in the language of journalism, science and technology, which, according to I.R. Halperin, "there is no dictionary which can and should immediately fix their appearance". That's why British lexicographers call many neologisms "occasional" that is addicting unusual, accident. The "occasional" is further enhanced in those cases where a new coinage is slang word from, i.e. from the field of language, which is generally, as mentioned above, is characterized by high variability.

What should the translator do in cases, when he meets a neologism? First of all it is necessary to understand the meaning of the neologism based on the context and the analysis of its structure. To make sure the difficulties of translation of neologisms, we consider some examples. Phrases, I can dig it; do you dig this song? cannot be translated on the basis of the common meanings of the verb to dig. Just open the dictionary "The American Heritage", we can find the following meaning of the verb to dig, not registered in other dictionaries year earlier editions: to comprehend, to appreciate, to enjoy (slang), that is, translated into Russian: понимать, оценивать, нравиться. Translation of the above proposals wills, therefore, is this: I love it, do you like this song? Further study of the etymology of the verb to dig shows that in its meaning it came from the jargon of the Beat (the beat jargon), and then was picked up by the media, resulting in the present, this meaning to dig became widely known. Consequently, in this case translator retrieves the desired meaning based on the context and a dictionary.

In another case, a root word structure must help. The word peacenik recently appeared in the English language. BARS haven't this word. How should translate it? Breaking the word into two parts peace + nik, you can guess that the nik- is suffix for forming nouns. Under the influence of the Russian suffix (com. sputnik, lunik) in the English words of this kind began to appear more and more often. Consequently, peacenik - это участник мирных демонстраций, манифестант, борец за мир. The same can be said about the term nixonomics. So, American journalists dubbed the economic policies of former U.S. President Nixon. At first, the term was used only joking, but now it is quite commonly used in print and can be found even in official texts. [8; 289].

Here are some more examples. The adjective heavy recently is used in everyday speech, not only in the sense "тяжелый", but in the sense "веский", "сильный" (for example, that "s a heavy idea - это убедительная идея.) The word bust in the United States recently began to be used in the meaning of "сделать налет", "арестовать" (Charlie got busted last night - Чарли вчера арестовали; and dope bust - облава на торговцев наркотиками), and also in the sense of "сделать ошибку", "проваливаться" and, finally, in the sense of "нарушать", "урезать" (to bust prices - резко снизить цены). The word hassle as a neologism in everyday speech is used to mean trouble, bother (don" t hassle me = don "t bother me)., However, recently, it has become increasingly be used in the sense "проблема", "трудность" (that "sa real hassle of his - да это у него серьезная проблема).

Thanks to advertising, the word put down was as a neologism "отвергать", especially in the form of a critical (or abusive) comment. ("The American Heritage") The same can be said about the word strung-out. In the dictionary of Mueller, the word to string is "растягиваться вереницей". In the future, the word strung-out, apparently formed a new meaning, "избитый ", "изувеченный", "изуродованный" (He is really strung-out). As neologisms synonyms we can cite the followings: spaced, wasted, wrecked. (He was wasted in Vietnam. = He was wrecked in Vietnam. = He was killed in Vietnam. - Он был убит во Вьетнаме)

Close synonym with this group of words is a neologism trash. In the modern use of this word in the United States it has acquired, in particular the meaning "разрушать", "уродовать", "портить", "громить" [for example, to trash a building = to destroy a building - разрушать здание; to go out trashing == to go out for things to destroy - заниматься порчей имущества (сооружений)].

Relatively recently, the vocabulary of the English language in the United States added by neologism "rip off with the basic meaning "своровать", "украсть", "стащить", "опустошить". In addition, the verb to rip off is sometimes used to mean "домогаться денег" (radical groups ripping off the promoters of rock concerts - (молодежные) радикальные группы, которые пытаются "выколотить" денежки у организаторов концертов ультрасовременной музыки. Perhaps, therefore, a new phrase rip off artist - мастер на все руки, ловкач, пройдоха, synonym shifty person.

Finally, it should be made about the use of the neologism rip-off in the meaning "убийство", "расправа" (You never know. He"s going to get ripped off one of these days- Как знать. Его когда-нибудь могут прикончить). Of course, these meanings can not be known not only to the novice interpreter, but by many English speakers, detached from the sphere of slang, "language" hippie or youth jargon.

The word gig is relatively widely used in a new meaning "работа" (job) (I"ve got a gig on Saturday - В субботу мне удалось найти работу). Especially often this meaning neologism is used in the speech of American musicians (a newgig=a new occupation - новое занятие). The word jive is, perhaps, partly supplanted the word nonsense (Don"t give that jive - Кончай говорить этот вздор). This phrase can be heard in the speech of young people. The verb Jive is often used in speech and in the sense "шутить"(You"ve just jiving me, man - Да ты меня, я вижу, разыгрываешь).

Other most widely known neologisms of 70s are: dude in the sense "человек, парень" (He"s a nice dude - Он славный малый) and a cat, which is often used to mean "паренек", "браток", "братишка". At this plural noun is used in the sense of "ребята", "парни". (There are some really fine cats in that band! - В этом оркестре отличные ребята!). "The American Heritage" as slang cat gives the following: a man - "человек". In the political language fat cats are «денежные мешки», "лица, оказывающие щедрую финансовую поддержку политическим кандидатам".

The word cool as a neologism is used in the sense "успокоиться", "взять себя в руки". In this connection there is an idiom cool it, which means "успокойся", "потише", "не трепыхайся". It is synonymous with literary relax, calm down, restrain yourself. The word stoned is often used in the "одурманить наркотиками" (get stoned, get high, get wrecked); groove on - in sense "наслаждаться" (I can really groove on the Beatles - наслаждаюсь, слушая ансамбль "Битлз"); cosmic with meaning "потрясающий" (cosmic idea! - потрясающе!); out of sight - "фантастический"; goof on - "смеяться", "насмехаться над кем-либо" (Charlie"s just goofing on you - Чарли просто смеется над вами); bummer - "неудачный опыт"; shuck - "надувательский " (he"s shuck, he"s shucking - ему верить нельзя).

The word shuck is used instead of the usual word for such situations of the word phony; get it on (or get down) instead of the verb to commence - начинать (Get down to it - Давай, начинай).

The word commune for a long time was used in the British and American speech in the following meanings:

1) historical community;

2) a municipality, the lowest unit of territorial self-government (in France, Belgium, Italy and other countries);

3) The Commune - Парижская коммуна (also the Commune of Paris). American hippies now use the word to mean "группа людей, проживающих совместно за счет тех средств, которыми располагают все члены этой группы".

The word cop (short for copper - police) has a number of slang meanings, such as "украсть", "стащить"; cop it - "получить нагоняй". These meanings are widely known. However, a neologism сор out is not registered anywhere yet. The question Do you cop out? - Ты избегаешь этого? is commonly used in the particular situation, it can be heard, for example, in speech of fighters for social and civil rights.

The neologism counterculture can give a lot of trouble to the translator. The word is involuntarily perceived as consisting of two elements: counter + culture, that is, "контр культура". However, such interpretation of the word counterculture would be a mistake. In fact, in modern English in the United States, this word is synonymous with "life style", especially in mind the difference between the new style from traditional forms of American life. [9; 179]

Expression to go straight literally means "идти прямо". Recently, the expression came to be used figuratively to mean "встать на честный путь", "жить как все нормальные люди", "образумиться". The American Heritage" gives the following interpretation of this expression is to go straight (informal) = to reform after having been a criminal - "изменить свое поведение, отбыв заключение".

In further reconsideration, or, more precisely, the use of this phrase in "language" hippie, beatniks and other similar elements it has acquired a slightly different meaning: "порвать с дурной привычкой", "покончить (с наркотиками) ". (You know, he goes straight now. - Вы знаете, он "завязал")

It is extremely difficult to translate a valued word head. This word has actually hundreds of meanings. In the field of youth slang, the word head has taken a new meaning, have never been registered, "чудак", "чудаковатый", "потребитель наркотиков" (Com. acid head, pot-head - наркоман). Literature synonym is the word addict or drug-user.

Speaking of neologisms, we should also mention words like psychedelic, scene, shades, soul brother, trucking, vibes, rap. The word psychedelic is used in a speech on the new social "movement" in the United States. Representative of this "movement" is some of America's youth, which is bored bourgeois culture and is seeking a way out of the impasse, rushing, however, to the other extreme - the world of hallucinations. This word can be translated as вызывающий галлюцинации (eg, psychedelic music).

The word scene in American spoken speech is not used in the conventional sense, "сцена", but more often as "место действия", "опыт". Soul brother is literally translated as "душевный брат", "добрая душа". In fact, in the speech of the American Negro the word soul brother is usually appeared instead of the word black - черный. The word trucking (literally "перевозка на грузовиках") in colloquial speech is now used to mean "идти на своих двоих", that is, instead of general literary option take a walk (to truck = to walk jauntily - идти развязной походкой).

On the other hand, the expression of political texts to take a walk can mean "голосовать за кандидата другой партии". There is a curious word flunkenstein which first appeared in the walls of American Colleges and Universities. When you consider that flunk - студент, исключенный за неуспеваемость, it becomes clear that flunkenstein - is "вечный неудачник" or "студент, который постоянно проваливается на экзаменах".

Neologism street people is used in modern speech to mean "бродячая молодежь". So the United States is commonly called a hippie and all the homeless people.

The word together has a new meaning - "в хорошем расположении духа". (Например: You"re looking really together these days)

On the contrary, it has the antonym into downs "в Дурном расположении духа" (Charlie "s into downs today - Сегодня Чарли не с той ноги встал.) In the vernacular speech to off is a synonym for the verb to kill. The new synonyms are also to do a number on someone "s hear, to rip off.

From these examples, it can be concluded that many of the neologisms arise on the basis of colloquialisms and slang. Many of them, despite their initial originality, then quickly dissappear, from the speech. Such neologisms can be called "words- meteors." At the same time, the others firmly established in the popular language. Y.I. Retsker in this connection gives the following interesting data: [10; 350]

"Special addition to a dictionary " Webster "s New International Dictionary" of 1968 consists of 2,500 neologisms. If we compare the editions of 1963 and 1964 of the dictionary's Chambers, it turns out that of 2,500 neologisms in the edition in 1964 there were about 500 for the first time. It is clear that the commonly used dictionaries record only new words have entered the language. The so-called "copyright", individual neologisms do not get in dictionaries. However, this category of neologisms is rare phenomenon; very few writers have resorted to the creation of new words. "

In the era of mass communication, there is truly an unprecedented opportunity for the development and spread of neologisms. A striking proof of the language is the press of our time. Language of the American press, almost daily, enriched neologisms. Many of them, however, remain "neologisms-by-night" while the other "words-impromptus" are gradually moving the vocabulary. These, in particular, are the (now widely known), the words and phrases like:

sweat shop - предприятие, на котором существует потогонная система;

trouble shooter - уполномоченный по улаживанию конфликтов, dark horse - темная лошадка, то есть кандидат, неожиданно выдвинутый на какой-то пост в разгар предвыборной кампании;

favorite son - кандидат, выдвигаемый в президенты делегацией своего штата (на предвыборном съезде партии);

boondoggling - a word once belonged to the category of slang now is widely known in political vocabulary to mean "заниматься пустыми делами";

the term hooverize literally means "жить по Гуверу" that is, "экономить на еде", "недоедать".

Expression pork barrel once was a part of the American slang. Now, however, it is recognized political term that means "бочка с салом", "кормушка", "казенный пирог", that is specially made by the Government activities to gain popularity among the masses.

It is now quite "respectable" political term lame duck was once known only as a political slengizmy. Now the term lame duck is used in the sense of "политик-неудачник", "человек, которому не везет".

It is interesting to trace the emergence of a neologism sky marshal. This word originated in the heyday of the practice of hijacking the kidnappers, robbers (highjackers). A wave of violent seizure and hijackings in the United States gave rise to a special science of identifying "профиля потенциального угонщика" (highjacker profile determination). Respectively and there were a lot of new words and concepts associated with this field.

Neologisms lunatic fringe and a little old lady in tennis shoes are rough and emotive expressive phraseological units. These words have approximately the same meaning as the traditional political term extremist - экстремист.

This group of words can include such "winged" neologisms as

nuts and cooks - махровые реакционеры;

diehards - твердолобые;

dinosaur wing - (букв) "крыло динозавра", то есть группа людей с устарелыми взглядами;

hidebounds - лица с узким политическим кругозором;

moss-backs - ультраконсерваторы и old fogies - старые консерваторы.

Referring to the history of political neologisms, it would be interesting to trace, for example, the development of a number of political terms. The number of terms in the American political vocabulary is very much: besides the already long settled word-concepts such as political hireling - политический наймит; political drudge - работяга (о трудолюбивом работнике); stooge - политическая марионетка, there are new more and more. It is already mentioned above terms wardheeler, wheelhorse, as well as (party) hack, hanger-on, hangdog politician, hatchetman.

Unfortunately, the vocabulary has not been reflected in the current bilingual (translated) dictionaries and translator must offer their own versions of translation based on its own independent conclusions. [11;145]. Wardheeler - it is a political term with a scornful and contemptuous color, in Russian his value can be passed through such relations as the petty politician, hanger (with the boss), the term wheelhorse, is also used in speech, given that the definition which is given by this term in the explanatory dictionary of American, Russian equivalent lexical units: a hard worker, a person who carries on itself all impact.

Consequently, the terms drudge, wheelhorse are very close in meaning. Party hack is a political prostitute. Hanger-on is not difficult to translate, because the meaning is quite clear already passed by a word (compare to hang-on - цепляться) приспешник, подхалим. Hang-dog politician should translate прихлебатель, карьерист. The word hatchet-man appeared in the American political "vocabulary recently. It has a conversational tone and clearly translates политический приспешник. Sometimes, it is necessary to give a broader interpretation: "человек, следящий (по поручению босса) за соблюдением остальными членами партийной дисциплины и выполнением основных партийных решений"

From the point of view of psycholinguistic analysis of a very interesting series of political synonyms are neologisms of 60es. These are the words that represent the symbolic power or imaginary power: straw man, paper tiger, stalking horse, satellite.

General literary idiom puppet government - марионеточное правительство is known to all. At the same time, the latest neologisms in said series of synonyms can perplex even the most experienced interpreter. In fact, how to translate this political neologism as straw man (or man of straw)?

The literal meaning of it is "соломенный человек". Clearly, this is a metaphor, and therefore, it is necessary to refer the metaphorical element in Russian. Apparently, the best can be considered such options as a "straw man", "man of straw". However rethinking neologism went even further. Straw man in modern political language means "подставной (фиктивный) кандидат, выдвигаемый с целью отвлечь внимание избирателей от другого кандидата". Neologism paper tiger, as it is known, entered the Russian language for a long time. It is converted by means of tracing paper - paper tiger that is used to mean "неопасный противник".

The phrase stalking horse is very difficult to translate without knowing its scope. In the dictionary "The American Heritage" neologism stalking horse defined as follows: "any sham candidate put forward to conceal the candidacy of another or divide the opposition" ("любой "липовый" кандидат, который выдвигается для того, чтобы отвлечь внимание от другой кандидатуры или расколоть оппозицию"). Since so wordy interpretation can not be used as a transferable option, then it should be made based on at least the basic features, and then given a neologism can be translated as a dummy candidate, figureheads (in the political game).

Most recently in the political language, appeared the term off the reservation, where the neologism means ""оставаться в рядах партии, но не поддерживать кандидата, выдвинутого партией". It appears mostly in speech policies can not be known even English speakers.

The next step in the political sense (after off the reservation) will be taking a walk - "Support the candidate of the other party." And finally, the last step in this direction bolting - "transition into the ranks of the other party." This neologism is used primarily in speech, and is gradually replacing the obscheliteraturnogo version of switching to the other party. Without knowledge of the extra-linguistic situation is extremely difficult to translate a neologism nervous Nellies. According to the U.S. Sefayera (W. Safire. The New Language of Politics. N. Y - 1968, p.277. - Trans. Automatic), this expression is used the first time in his speech, U.S. President Johnson against critics of the Vietnam War: .. . some nervous Nellies and some who will become frustrated and bothered and break ranks under the strain (some easy to panic people and those who will feel troubled and difficult times can leave the battlefield). Thus, nervous Nellies should translate people, it is easy to panic. This expression came into the political language of the area slang. (Cf. nice Nelly - prude)

So what are the ways to transfer the "classic" and "one-off" neologisms should be recommended? Analysis of the translation of neologisms convinces us that the most common is a translation by selecting the corresponding analogue in another language. Unfortunately, dictionary of neologisms in Russian published extremely rare. Translator much could be learned from such dictionary.

The second way - it is a translation by transcription or transliteration. So, steel lobby as we pass the lobby steel companies. This is the most concise version. Translation-interpretation - a group of persons (who are former congressmen) that on the sidelines of the Congress of trying to put pressure on members of Congress on behalf of the owners steel companies - can hardly be considered successful.

The third way - a method of tracing. For example, street people can be translated as street people (the method of tracing) or as wanderers (analog method).

1.4 Ethnic and cultural specificity of learning a new vocabulary of the English language

Analysis of new words showed that the predominant host of new vocabulary units is, as expected, nouns, since the expansion of vocabulary is mainly due to the names of objects and events that fill the space of cultural studies.

Learning new words revealed some trends in linguistic and cultural features of the expansion of space in the period under review.

At the heart of these names may be kind of peculiar people: shareowner (a person who owns shares) - "the owner of the shares" (direct nomination speech share - share), street fighter (a tough combative person) - "bully" (shaped association with short street - street), style-counselor (an arbiter of or adviser on what is currently fashionable) - "counselor / advisor / consultant" (a direct nomination), staff-doctor (in Britain, a grade of hospital doctor between senior house officer and consultant) - "the degree of doctor at the hospital"); individualization of personality based on the intrinsic properties: scuzzyball (American slang, an unpleasant or disgusting person), shakers (influential people, spunk) (Australian informal, a devastatingly handsome young man). Associative-shaped component clearly represented among the units, calling people on the basis of its intrinsic properties (cf. scuzzy - unpleasant and dirty; shake - to get rid of; spunk - courage, spirit). Also, the name may be indicative of the impact on the person referred to as: shutout (American, a person who is excluded or prevented from succeeding).

Somatic vocabulary plays an important role in the nomination of the person. For example, the image of the serpent (snake) emphasizes movements. Fixed vocabulary phrase "snake hips" (attractively slim hips, especially in a man) indicates the possibility of the emergence of new words in the areas adequately linguistically aforesaid (names of parts of the human body).

Significantly, represented sphere in business and finance. These are words such as market-maker (a person whose business is buying shares, securities, bonds, etc. And selling them on, usually at a marginal profit), competitor-analysis (the finding out of information about the financial and other affairs of competitor companies). Terms such as "market - the market, analysis - analysis, agreement - an agreement, deal - an agreement, the transaction", connecting in complex words, form a representative layer of vocabulary in this field.

Financial vocabulary includes units silly money (money in amounts beyond most people "s experience, making possible the indiscriminate purchase of very expensive items; also funny money), balloon financing (a method of financing purchases in which the vendor lends the purchaser (part of ) the price, part of which is repayable in monthly installments but leaving a large final payment to be made to discharge the debt). economic vocabulary can also be expressed by means of emotionally expressive and figurative components (see "silly - having or showing a lack of good sense and judgement","funny - causing laughter; amusing "per unit" silly / funny money ", shaped component" balloon - a large bag of strong light material filled with gas or heated air so that it can float in the air "in one" balloon financing ").

The natural increase in medical vocabulary - new words are recorded skin tag (a small nonmalignant epidermal excrescence), SIDS (sudden infant death syndrome), suicide gene (a gene possessed by certain bacteria which terminates their life). In this group stands the principle of analogy: SIDS is formed by analogy with AIDS - acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. This principle can also be applied in the following neologisms: therapy - polar therapy, psychotherapy. This model is quite common and reflects the trend in the derivation of the new English vocabulary.

The field of culture in the narrow sense (music, literature, theater) is presented, for example, the words sampling (taking extracts from a variety of songs and combining them to form a new one), sit-tragedy (a radio or television drama series featuring the same basic cast of characters in stories of misfortune or conflict), slamdancing (dancing engaged in by fans of heavy metal and similar forms of rock music in which dancers jump up and down frenziedly and collide violently with each other).

In the theatrical life also has changed - there are new types of theaters, and with them new names, such as: theatre of absurd - "theater of the absurd", theatre of cruelty - "theater of cruelty", son et lumiere (Fr. = sound fnd light ) - "theater with sound and light effects", theatre of fact - "theater of fact", black theatre - "House Negro", etc. Among the neologisms related to theatrical life, you can call such nouns as revolve - "revolving stage "and theatredom - «theater world».

In the film, television and video, many new technical means behind them formed a large number of neologisms, such as: inflight movies - "movies on display in flight in an aircraft", inflight videosystem - "video system used in an aircraft", featurette - "short documentary", satellite-delivered show - "a program transmitted via satellite, etc.

Recently, new methods of teaching are indicated by the following neologisms: sleep-teaching - "training in a dream", CLASS (Computer-based Laboratory of Automated School System) - "class of programmed learning", multimedia lecture - "lecture using multiple media (VCR , TV, VCR, etc.) ", telelecture, telecourse -" training program on television, "etc. Basically, the neologisms of the group, formed by acronyms that reflects the nature of the terminology in this field. It is also necessary to note the use of the prefix tele - (some experts it is recognized as poluprefiks).

There are new types of educational institutions, such as: megaversity - "a major university where trained many thousands of students", multiversity - "university with a lot of faculties", para-university - "University volunteer (a free program)", para- school - "School on a voluntary basis."

The use of the prefix mega-, multi-, para - reflects the trend of integration in education, along with the use of the word-formation process as a "mixing" (blending): megaversity [mega + university] - "a major university where students are taught many thousands", multiversity [multi + university] - "university with a lot of departments." The use of these affixes enhances the emotional and expressive effect, pointing to the significance of the changes taking place in the country.

Instead, the terms student, pupil became increasingly used term educatee, schooler; coined the term educationalist - "Specialist (theoretician or practitioner) in the field of education." These words indicate the emergence of a new level in the relationship between students and teachers, as well as a fundamentally new stage in the understanding of the process of education (sr.educatee - the man who taught; schooler - a man who goes to school). Joining suffixes ee - and er-, denoting people who perform an action to the keywords related to the field, - a vivid example confirm this.

Among the new units there is a group of words, it is the behavior of people engaged in various activities, such as: skippering (domestic sphere) (slang; the practice of taking over a deserted dwelling to live in it without permission or payment squatting), squiffing (postage ) (British slang, the practice of postal workers reposting mail that is ready for delivery). The structure of many of these units include emotional and expressive Seme (eg, spree - a bout of violent activity [violent - uncontrollably fierce]), movers and shakers - people of power and influence [power - control over others; influence; influence - the power to have an effect on someone or something without the use of direct force or command]).

New units have enriched the vocabulary of computer language - superminicomputer (an advanced powerful minicomputer), supersmart card (a smart card with a key board and display panel).

Computerization is used in various fields of science and technology, leading to a large number of terminological neologisms. For example, in linguistics: interlingual - "artificial language for machine translation into several languages", in biometrics, in particular to denote biometric protection from thieves: biometric locks - "biometric locks."

The group of words denoting the commodities unit includes: scaf (American informal) self-centered-altruism fad - a currently-popular product (for example a garment or cosmetic) which as well as being attractive purports to have a beneficial effect on the user , shin-sock - a sock that reaches approximately halfway up the calf; names of food - snack pellet (a convenience food in the form of an extruded and shaped mass of edible matter), drinks - super-second (a claret from the Medoc or Graves region which is officially in the second category of excellence, but is generally recognized as being superior to this).

Expanded group of words indicating the location, such as: skip-park (an area with skips for the deposit of various sorts of refuse), snail-park (an establishment where edible snails are commercially reared), solar pond (an artificially constructed pool of salty water designed to collect the sun "s heat for conversion to electricity). typical for the use of the English language keywords (in this case, directly indicating the location - park (park), pond (pond)) and the use of difficult words can form words with emotional, expressive and imaginative semami associated with this location: skip, snail, solar.

Sport enriched vocabulary words like: short tennis (a version of tennis for young children, played on a short court with small rackets and a low net), spectator catch (in cricket, a catch which to spectators appears to be a legitimate dismissal of the batsman but is not, for example, when the ball has hit the pad rather than the bat, or bounces up after being hit into the ground).

Individual words are types of movement: slo-mo or slowmo (informal, slowed-down action on film or videotape) and Accessories: slipmat (a circular piece of thin rubber placed on a turntable to prevent records from slipping), the new name of the ferry - streaker (a fast, highly maneuverable ferry operating on the River Clyde). In the language of the word arose "seajack" (the hijacking of a ship at sea), by analogy with the existing "hijack".

Thus, on the one hand, recently observed in the language use of multiple ways to form a new vocabulary (affixation, compounding, blending, abbreviation, conversion) reflecting semantic and word-formation processes in the language during this period. On the other hand, the formation of semantic neologism is the result of lingvokreativnoy nominator, coupled with extralinguistic knowledge and discourse, with the transition of a new unit of a particular individual consumption in the use of language community.

Euphemistic neologisms are an integral part of the vocabulary of any language. This layer of vocabulary is considered as a kind of allegory to bringing its distinctive features used by explicit text and language as a way of political correctness, reflecting the trend of using veiled or mitigate the problem of vocabulary in thematic areas such as racism, sexism, religion, political and economic stability, etc.

A large group of euphemisms designed on the principle of comity. It typically includes words and phrases that mitigate different types of discrimination [12; 7]

euphemisms mitigating age discrimination (middlescence - the period of life between 40 and 65 years; senior, mature, seasoned, distinguished, gracious (of a woman) - old);

euphemisms, softening the estate discrimination (the neediest, the needy, the ill-provided, the socially deprived, the underprivileged, the disadvantaged, low-income people - the poor);

euphemisms, the non-discrimination of people with disabilities (differently abled, physically different, individuals with disabilities or handicapable - a cripple; big-boned, differently sized, husky or full-figured - thick; hair-disadvantaged - bald; sane, mentally unbalanced (deficient), unhinged, deranged, crazy, retarted, lunatic, wrong in the head, not all there, off one "s head, off one" s rocker - mentally ill; a bit wanting in the top storey, half-wilted, half-baked, nut, nutty, batty, barmy, dotty, having bats, in one "s belfry, crazy as a bedbug - crazy, crazy);

euphemisms mitigating racial and ethnic discrimination (African-American, member of African Diaspora, person of black race - the representative of the Negro population of the United States; Jewish person - Jew);

euphemisms, mitigating gender discrimination, in particular female gender (camera operator - cameraman; firefighter - fireman; police officer - policeman; chairman - chairperson; stewardess - flight attendant).

Theme Group euphemisms that reduce superstitious fear of any phenomena (the principle of taboo), includes phenomena of death. It is in this group, the most taboo is representative principle. For example, moonchild (person born under the sign of Cancer) has replaced the word cancer, is associated with the disease; hospice, originally denoting a guest house for the poor, the sick (shelter, hotel), is now a hospital for the terminally ill or institution for the care of dying people.

It should be noted that in English, the theme of death verbalized only by euphemisms. For example, the verb to die (die) can be replaced with a huge amount of literature and books of synonyms to decease (die) or paraphrase to pass away (go to the other world), and also to go West (go to the West), to depart ( sail), to breathe one "s last (breathe for the last time), to join the silent / the majority (join the majority), to be no more (do not be), to lose one" s life (losing a life) to expire (due to expire on the expiration date), to go behind the eternal cloud (go to eternal heaven), to pay one "s debt to nature (to give back to nature), to go to kingdom (to go into the kingdom), to sleep the sleep that knows no waking (sleep soundly), to go the way of all flesh (to adhere to all mortals). Along with them in the language has reduced crudely humorous expressions like to kick the bucket, to count daises, to pop one "s clogs, to give up the ghost, to kick off, to check out, to take a ride, to hop the twig (to kick the bucket, drop the skates, kick the bucket).

The phrase if anything should happen to me in the sense of if I die (when I die) has become familiar in recent announcements of insurance companies.

In modern English, there are many euphemisms, replacing the concept of God or the devil.

God (God) - Dad, Gad, God-a-mighty, Gol, Goramighty, Gord, Gorra, Garry, Gosh, Gott, Gar, Gawd, Gawsh, God Almighty, Gum, Gub, Gun, Lord, Law, Lawd, Laws, Lor, Lordy, Lorsy.

Devil (Satan, Satan) - father of lies, the gentleman in black, the God of this world, our ghostly enemy, the Prince of Darkness, Old enemy / lad / Poker / gooseberry / Bendy / lain / deuce / dickens / Harry / Henry / Ned / One / Dragon / Scratch / Boy.

For the word Hell, the following euphemisms (hell, the kingdom of the devil): Blazes, Hail Columbia, Halifax, hallelujah, heck, HEdoubleL, Himmel, Hoboken, hot place, something.

In euphemistic vocabulary of the past decades has increased markedly the tendency to form new units, raising the prestige of certain professions (eg, hairstylist or beautician - hairdresser; morticians, funeral directors - serving the cemetery; sanitation engineer - garbage collector; environmental hygienist - janitor; footwear engineer - bootblack ; glass maintenance engineer - a window cleaner).

Theme Group euphemisms, distracting from the negative phenomena of reality (the principle of the regulatory impact on the audience and the principle of secrecy), it is appropriate to divide into two groups: [13; 289]

euphemisms, undercover officers aggressive military action (crime, drug abuse, aggressive policy): involvement - aggression; conflict - war; device - a bomb; limited air strike / air support - bombing; training bases - military bases;

euphemisms associated with adverse effects in the socio-economic sphere: reserve of labor force - unemployment; culturally different children - children in slums; downsizing, rightsizing - dismissal.

By "Neogene" areas over the past decade include:

undesirable aspects of the business and business relationships;

Indirect name drugs;

layoffs and reductions in work;

Indirect naming of death (natural and forced);

Indirect naming intimate relationship between a man and a woman;

the current understanding of discrimination associated with taboo new generation - the color of the skin.

So, in the last decade, most of the euphemisms does not occur in the traditional taboos, and in the business relationships between people, which may be related to the commercialization of life principles and values ??of human society in general and the English-speaking community in particular.

Based on the above, in this chapter we have come to the conclusion that the neologism (neo + Greek. Logos word) - a new word, linguistic innovation (figure of speech), the grammatical feature, which appears in the language.

A large number of new lexical units appeared in connection with the development of computer technology. New semantic group of neologisms are related to the alleged visits to earth by aliens from outer space.

In the field of fine arts there is a rapid process of experimentation, and new manners of painting paintings and other art works.

In the theatrical life also changes - new types of theaters, and with them new names.

It is interesting to note that in the 70-ies. members of the feminist movement have declared English sexist language, ie, language, discriminatory female sex, since it contains more forms of masculine than feminine (usually because of the word man as a second component of the names of many trades).

An important aspect of the life of society is the sphere of education. In the UK in 1988 was issued a new education law, known as Gerbil (Great Education Reform Bill). Due to this law, there are many neologisms.

Neologisms are usually formed under the laws of the relevant language, in his productive patterns of word formation. However, literary books are sometimes created neologisms and unproductive ways of word formation. In such cases, the effective power of word-formation means becomes more clear, vivid, tangible. Most funds formation of new words so often act as a stylistic device.

The most typical ways of formation of neologisms in the language of English writers are compounding, conversion and change the meanings of words.

In this chapter, we especially consider translation of neologisms.

Analysis of new words showed that the predominant host of new vocabulary units is, as expected, nouns, since the expansion of vocabulary is mainly due to the names of objects and events that fill the space of cultural studies.

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