Comparative Analysis of American and British Slang
Slang and its specific features, the nature and types. Peculiarities of slang formation. The purpose of slang usage. Influence of slang on the english language. Principal characteristics and distinctive peculiarities of british and american slang.
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Diploma paper
Comparative Analysis of American and British Slang
CONTENTS
- Introduction
- Theoretical Part
- 1. Slang and its Specific Features
- 1.1 The Nature of Slang
- 1.2 Types of Slang
- 1.3 Peculiarities of slang formation
- 2. Usage of Slang
- 2.1. The Purpose of Slang Usage
- 2.2. Influence of Slang on the English Language
- 3. Distinctive Peculiarities of British and American Slang
- 3.1Main Characteristics of British Slang
- 3.2Principal Features of American Slang
- Practical part
- 4. Comparison of British and American Slang
- Conclusion
- Bibliography
INTRODUCTION
Slang is casual spoken language which differs from dialectical speech and jargon as well as formal speech. Some linguists think of it as the sprinkles of color in a language, since it is often unique, unusual, and sometimes startling. As a general rule, slang is not used in formal spoken language, or in writing, unless the speaker is attempting to achieve a deliberate effect. Some slang terms, however, make the jump to accepted common usage, as was the case with “OK».
Often, slang begins as group-specific argot, which is related to jargon. Unlike jargon, however, argot is not a collection of technical terms that are used within a group with limited outside understanding. Instead, it is used to differentiate members of a group from others, and to foster a sense of collective belonging in the group. In addition, it can provide a way to talk about questionable or illegal activity without being obvious. When argot begins to spread from small subgroups to the rest of a group of language speakers, it becomes slang.
Typically, slang is humorous, ribald, or shocking. It is designed to make speech more casual and playful, and it may not always be suitable for polite company. Many terms are related to human sexuality, for example, and slang can get rather graphic. The terms are also usually short-lived, rarely existing even long enough to make it into the dictionary. There are, of course, exceptions to this rule; English speakers have been saying “beat it” for centuries, for example Dumas, B. and J. Lighter. “Is slang a word for linguists?” American Speech 53 (1978). - p. 5.
Generally, slang diffuses through a group of people, and it may spread out across an entire region or class. People who are not in that group may pick up the terminology as well, causing the usage to spread, or the words may remain isolated to a smaller subgroup. College students, for example, often develop complex slang terms, with words from different regions diffusing on a college campus. As these students leave, they carry these terms to other young people in various parts of the world, often making the speech of the younger generation incomprehensible to those outside of it.
Learning how to use slang properly can be very difficult. Many new language learners struggle with casual language and idioms because the terms are often nonsensical and difficult to comprehend. If someone can master this aspect of a language, however, they can fit in much more effectively with native speakers.
Thus, the topic of our investigation was chosen to be “Comparative Analysis of American and British Slang”.
The topicality of our investigation is predetermined by wide usage of slang words in modern British and American English.
The object of the investigation is slang lexemes in the English language.
The subject of our investigation is peculiarities of slang in British and American English.
The aim of our investigation is to analyse American and British slang.
To gain the aim of our investigation we have determined the following tasks of our investigation:
- consider nature of slang;
- determine types of slang;
- specify peculiarities of slang formation;
- investigate the purpose of slang usage;
- consider influence of slang on the English language;
- describe main characteristics of British slang;
- determine principal features of American slang;
- compare British and American slang.
Paper structure. The paper consists of the introduction, theoretical and practical parts, conclusions, and bibliography.
1. Slang and its Specific Features
1.1 The Nature of Slang
Slang is a set of highly informal words and expressions that are not considered standard in the speaker's dialect or language. Slang is often highly regional, specific to a particular territory or subculture. Slang words and expressions can spread outside their original arena, and some may even lose their slang status and become accepted as a standard language. Often, the widespread adoption of a slang term by mainstream culture will cause the subculture it originated in to create a new, less recognized term.
The origins of slang are usually found in the desire of those members of a particular group, or subculture, to communicate freely and intelligibly with each other from their common base of shared experience, interests, attitudes, and identity. This is, however, coupled with the desire to differentiate themselves either from another group, or from the larger society as a whole. Dalzell, T. and Victor, T. The New Partridge Dictionary of Slang and Unconventional English, London: Routledge. - 2006 - p. 25 Thus, slang involves the unconventional, even the taboo, (to differentiate the speaker from the norms of society) and often hostility and vulgar epithets for authorities or rivals (to differentiate from the «others» who are not members of the same group). Slang, therefore, has both positive and negative aspects. When it facilitates easier and familiar communication among those with a common base it functions to improve harmonious communication; when it draws distinctions, particularly hostile ones, building barriers between groups of people, it enhances the problems in human relationships that have been experienced throughout history.
According to Bethany K. Dumas and Jonathan Lighter, an expression should be considered «true slang» if it meets at least two of the following criteria:
It lowers, if temporarily, «the dignity of formal or serious speech or writing»; in other words, it is likely to be seen in such contexts as a «glaring misuse of register» (where a «register» is a subset of a language used for a particular purpose or in a particular social setting).
Its use implies that the user is familiar with whatever is referred to, or with a group of people that are familiar with it and use the term.
«It is a taboo term in ordinary discourse with people of a higher social status or greater responsibility».
It replaces «a well-known conventional synonym». This is done primarily to avoid «the discomfort caused by the conventional item [or by] further elaboration». Dumas, B.K., and Lighter, J. Is Slang a word for linguists? American Speech 53, p. 12-14
It is important to make a distinction between slang and jargon. Jargon is the technical vocabulary of a particular profession. Similarly to slang, those outside of the profession may not understand the terms or meaning of jargon. Unlike slang, however, jargon is not intended to exclude non-members of the group, and is concerned mainly with the technical peculiarities and specifics of a given field. Additionally, jargon does not fit the definition of slang, as it meets only a single criterion.
Origins of slang
During the Middle Ages, there was very little standardized language. Different dialects and pronunciations often represented one of the first concepts of «slang», although dialects are specifically not slang. During the sixteenth century, English Criminal Cant evolved. A specific set of language that was created for use by criminals and cheats, English Criminal Cant was not originally considered slang (since it was a specifically developed «language»), but by the eighteenth century it had evolved into slang.
Around the mid-1600s, slang began to appear in popular plays, like that of Richard Brome, and also in poems and songs. By the eighteenth century, English slang was influenced by the cultural differences in America, and slang usage began to expand. Slang was often associated with either criminals or foreigners during this time, and often dealt with human anatomy or taboo topics like sexuality. It was not until the 1920s that society began to adopt a more liberal attitude towards slang. Slang became popular with fiction writers and society at large. The development of English slang was assisted by a number of events, such as the American Civil War and the abolitionist movement.
1.2 Types of Slang
One use of slang is to circumvent social taboos, as mainstream language tends to shy away from evoking certain realities. For this reason, slang vocabularies are particularly rich in certain domains, such as sexuality, violence, crime, and drugs. Argot (French and Spanish for «slang»), also known as cant, is slang used particularly by thieves and other criminals, to prevent outsiders from understanding their conversations.
Slang very often involves the creation of novel meanings for existing words. It is very common for such novel meanings to diverge significantly from the standard meaning. Thus, «cool» and «hot» can both mean «very good or impressive».
Alternatively, slang can grow out of mere familiarity with the things described. For example, wine connoisseurs may refer to Cabernet Sauvignon as «Cab Sav», Chardonnay as «Chard» and so on. Not only does using the abbreviated names for different wines expend less superfluous effort, but it also serves as a shared code among connoisseurs and evokes a sense of the speaker's familiarity with wine. Bethany K. Dumas, and Jonathan Lighter, "Is Slang a Word for Linguists?" American Speech 53 (5), 1978, p. 14
Even within a single language community, slang tends to vary widely across social, ethnic, economic, and geographic strata. Slang sometimes grows more and more common until a term can become regarded as mainstream, acceptable language (for example, the Spanish word caballo or the English «movie»). Other times, the terms fall into disuse. Numerous slang terms pass into informal mainstream speech, and sometimes into formal speech, though this may involve a change in meaning or usage.
Slang is generally a bit wittier and cleverer than Standard American English according to Tom Dalzell. Slang is everywhere he says -- and youth slang, in particular, exerts enormous power.
In 1892, Walt Whitman described slang as “the start of fancy, imagination and humor, breathing into its nostrils the breath of life». In the century-plus since Whitman's lyrical characterization, the America that Whitman knew has been radically transformed by immigration, industrialization, urbanization and mass communication. Because of these changes and for the reasons suggested by Whitman, slang -- with its breath of life -- has permeated everyday speech. Slang is to a large extent ephemeral, and so to survive it must constantly regenerate; both the ephemeral and regenerative traits are nowhere more apparent than in the slang of American youth.
Slang pervades American speech to a startling degree. Its popularity can be gauged by the rush of journalists, politicians and purveyors of popular culture to embrace the latest word or phrase to spice up a newspaper headline, stump speech, advertisement or television script Beglar, D. and N. Murray. Contemporary Topics 3. New York: Longman, 2002. p. 60-61.
On the other side of the fence, prescriptive guardians of standard English and morality bemoan slang's “degrading” effect on public discourse and culture; their outcry further attests to slang's persistent and powerful presence in everyday English.
Slang's popularity and power with speakers of English should not come as a surprise. By design, slang is wittier and more clever, than standard English. As a species that seems to have a genetic inclination to linguistic creativity, we humans (to borrow again from Whitman) seem to find endearing slang's “rich flashes of humor and genius and poetry». With slang, each generation or subculture/counterculture group has the chance to shape and propagate its own lexicon, and in so doing to exercise originality and imagination. The end result is a lively, playful body of language that is at times used for no other reasons than that it is fun to use and identifies the speaker as clever and witty.
Slang's primary reason for being, to establish a sense of commonality among its speakers, further ensures its widespread use. When slang is used, there is a subtext to the primary message. That subtext speaks to the speaker's and listeners' membership in the same “tribe». Because “tribe” identity is so important, slang as a powerful and graphic manifestation of that identity's benefits. At times the primary message is not in the meaning of what is said, but in the very use of slang -- a compelling example of how the medium can be the message.
Similarly, in a society preoccupied with status, slang's varied and explicit vocabulary addressing the nuances of status guarantees its widespread use. Slang plays a critical role whether it delineates winner (top dog) from loser (toast), in-crowd (BMOC) from outcast (dweeb), or oppressor (the Man) from oppressed (doormat), providing catchy and memorable labels for us versus them. In a similar vein, slang is also much more effective than standard or conventional English when it comes to describing sports, sex and intoxication. Conversation often turns to these important aspects of American culture, and when it does we draw upon slang far more than we would if discussing, for example, the economy, religion or foreign policy. Green, J. Green's Dictionary of Slang, London: Chambers. - 2010, p. 31-32
American slang is also known for its fertility; it reproduces itself in abundance with each new generation. At any given moment, there are many, many slang words and expressions in use across the country. By a semantic process akin to natural selection, only the strong terms or phrases survive, spreading from the regional, cultural, age or ethnic group in which they are coined. The rest are quickly discarded and forgotten, footnoted testaments to a generation or subculture Gotti, M. `The origin of seventeenth century canting terms' in A changing World of Words: Studies in English Historical Lexicography, Lexicology and Semantics. Amsterdam-New York: Rodopi. 165-196. - 2002. With a few notable exceptions -- most especially cool -- we tire of even the strongest words and they fade away, usually after being co-opted by advertisers and headline writers. Just like a living organism, to counteract its short-lived nature and survive, slang must constantly regenerate as a body of speech and subset of the language.
The four factors that are the most likely to produce slang are youth, oppression, sports and vice, which provide an impetus to coin and use slang for different sociolinguistic reasons. Of these four factors, youth is the most powerful stimulus for the creation and distribution of slang. For, although we are not all members of a group that is oppressed by a dominant culture, or sports fanatics immersed in the language and lore of the game, and we do not all dip our toes into the pool of vice with its attendant argot, we are all young once. When we are young, we are subject to the generational imperative to invent a slang vocabulary that we perceive as our own, rejecting the slang of our older brothers and sisters (let alone our parents) in favor of a new lexicon.
There are slow periods, to be sure. In the late 1970s, for example, the United States paused to gather its collective breath after a decade of presidential scandal, war and social/racial upheaval. During this pause, the coining and use of slang slowed -- but not for long. Nature abhors a vacuum, and this is true with linguistic urges. Before long, new slang was on the scene.
Youth slang derives some of its power from its willingness to borrow from other bodies of slang. Despite its seeming mandate of creativity and originality, slang is blatantly predatory, borrowing without shame from possible sources. Foremost among them is the African-American vernacular, whose influence on American youth slang of the 20th century cannot be over-stated. Beginning in the late 1930s with the wild popularity of swing jazz and the jitterbug, continuing into the “jive generation” that fought World War II, through the beats and hipsters of the 1950s, the Sixties' mainstream youth and hippies alike, into the pervasive patois of hip-hop, American youth slang has borrowed consistently and generously from the slang of the black American urban experience.
In the 1930s, mainstream youth eager to embrace the language of their jazz-musician idols pored over Cab Calloway's “hiptionaries», jive glossaries for the uninitiated. In the 1950s and 1960s, the slang of American teenagers was shaped in large part by fast-talking AM radio disk jockeys, who drew upon the black urban vernacular for their vocabulary, syntax, pacing and soul -- “Come on South Philly. Come on, come on, West Philly, come on South Jersey, come on, yon teenagers everywhere. Hit that thing now. Hey, hey, ho, ho. Let me say greetings and salutations…” the disc jockeys would shout. In the 1980s, hip-sounding video-jockeys on MTV joined the ranks of slang instructors; their language was also heavily influenced by the African-American street. For the last two years, the black slang of hip-hop culture and rap music has dominated American youth slang among all classes, whether or not they embrace the actual rap music and the hip-hop ethic. Another source for youth slang is, surprisingly, the slang graveyard of generations past. When teenagers in the mid-1960s jumped onto “groovy” and “boss” as primary adjectives of strong approval, they were simply recycling rejects -- from the 1940s in the case of “groovy” and the 1870s in the case of “boss». When the youth of the seventies embraced “sweet” as their adjective of praise, they unknowingly harkened back to teenage slang of the 1930s. Similarly, the appropriation of “fly” as a prime piece of the vocabulary of hip-hop and rap in the 1980s was no more than a salvage operation from the slang of jazz musicians of the 1930's, which in turn drew from the 1870s. Lillo, Antonio. "Bees, Nelsons and Sterling Denominations: A Brief Look at Cockney Slang and Coinage." Journal of English Linguistics 28(2), 2000, p. 145
Whatever its source, youth slang is a core element of youth culture, as a defiant gesture of resistance and an emblem of tribe identity. Fashion and hair styles are other key manifestations of a generation's identity, but they can be easily regulated by adult authorities. With music and language, regulation and restriction are much more difficult. Even the most vigilant and repressive attempts by adult authority cannot completely eradicate slang and music with its slang lyrics. Language can be scrutinized and controlled in some places at some times, but it defies universal regulation, which allows its subversive nature to prevail.
As we move into our twenties, we gradually stop acquiring new slang and then ultimately just stop; we also slowly stop using our existing slang vocabulary. For most of our adult lives, we use the core slang vocabulary acquired in our youth either as a lingering symbol of our generational identity or simply on a vestigial basis. When we think of slang, then, we either think of our children's slang or the slang of our own youth. For this reason, if no other, the slang of youth exerts enormous power over American English. Of all the vernacular, slang is the most spectacular. Slang swings. Slang moves and grooves. Slang rocks, slang rules.
1.3 Peculiarities of slang formation
Slang is not the same as colloquial speech. Colloquial speech includes words that are more widespread than slang, e.g. yuppie, threepeat. Words go from slang into general colloquial usage: to crash a section.
Not the same as cuss words even though they may mean similar things. Cuss words are known by everybody and last for centuries. Slang is more fleeting.
Slang is a way of dividing the insiders from the outsiders, a way for a group to separate itself linguistically from other groups
Age: each new generation sets up its own insider terms to distinguish selves from older people.
Ethnicity: African-American slang often gets coopted by other groups: Jazz, rock-androll, soul --all words that began as African-American slang.
Slang tends to be co-opted by outsiders. Take the word --Not! ad for a fax machine ends up with the boss saying «And I'm saving so much money I might start giving out a few raises -- Not!»
Its co-option by the advertising world has pretty much killed it as slang.
When a word is co-opted by too many outsiders, it may cease to function in the slang of the originators and be replaced by other words. Wierzbicka, A., Understanding Cultures through their Key Words, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997, p. 90
Slang tends to describe negative or taboo things, or extremes.
More slang words refer to women than to men.
The normal processes of word-formation are seen in slang but slang tends to be more creative:
neologisms (rare)
* Geek mutations:
* British slang oday < dough
* Great Britain “backslang” yob 'boy', kool toul 'look out'
* chack (an attractive girl <chick?); ho < whore - what phonological processes are involved here?
* campenile; having an ear-gasm (meaning to flip out because someone is playing the music too loud)
* fabú `fabulous' shortenings (clipping)
* hiddy (<hideous)
* def (really cool, < definitely)
* spoke («Heck, Kristie's a spoke», short fr spoken for)
* to dis someone
* sitch for `situation'
* deets for `details'
* bringit for `bring it on'
* 24/7
blends
· dimbo < dumb/dim bimbo
· gork < geek + dork
compounds
· goofball, airhead, sleezebag, hobag, dorkmonger
affixation:
* suffixes
· -ski Let's go have a brewski
· -ie hottie
· -o wacko, wierdo
· -rama, -o-rama `very, totally'
The food at my dorm is grossorama
That guy is a babeorama
* prefixes
· mega- `lots'
· He's got megabucks
· I'm mega-tired.
· Mc- from McDonalds: `something cheap, mass
· produced, inferior quality' -- as in McPaper
· Stanford students call Cal Mc-University
* infix
English expletive insertion: fan-fuckin-tastic, kanga-bloody-roo, Phila-friggin-delphia, kinder-goddamn-garten acronyms:
* SNAG 'nice guy (like someone on 'thirtysomething' who is able to cry and takes his dates to trendy restaurants), Sensitive New-Age Guy
* MOS 'member of opposite sex'
* SNAFU-Situation Normal All Fucked Up borrowing
* haole 'white person' < Hawai'ian
* nark/narc 'police informer' <Romany nak 'nose'
* mush 'face' < Romany moosh 'man'
* putz around < Yiddish 'penis'
* schmuck < Yiddish 'penis'
* bob < Spanish baboso meaning `stupid or dumb' What a Bob.
* a-da-li stupid He sat on a chair that had just been painted. What an a-da-li person. «Used by Chinese people less than 50 years old. This is a direct phonetic translation. In Chinese, this phrase is represented by three characters. Winona Bullard, "History of Slang" Retrieved October 31, 2007, p. 77-78 There is no other meaning for this phrase in Chinese, not even character by character; therefore, it has to be translated by how it is pronounced». n Chinese euphemisms & metaphors
* clapping for credit (name of easy class)
* worshipping the porcelin goddess (vomit)
* take happy Sam camping (said of a man, to have sex)
* horizontal tango
* Metaphorically relaxation is cool and drunkenness is warm or involving cooking.
Consider terms like chill out, heated, fried, cool down sound symbolism
* gak (Lemonjuice and water drink the Cal band drinks during break)
* zerbert (to blow on one's stomach with the lips to make a funny noise)
Using old words in new ways
semantic changes (new meaning):
* fresh `novel, good'
* bad = `good,' badass, kickass = `very good' (opposites)
* thick `curvy'
changing part of speech:
* He's so adonis!
* He's a burn out (from burned out)
* grub (on) v. < n. (I was grubbin on some pizza)
puns:
* Babylon (or [beybilan]) - `place where babes (pretty women) come from'
* brewhaha `can of beer' (short forms = brewha, haha, ha) < brouhaha, 'uproar'
Allusions, e.g. to movie/comic strip characters:
* Magoo -- person driving car slowly
* McFly -- person with no intelligence
Julie Coleman, a linguist who teaches at the University of Leicester in England, attempts in “The Life of Slang” to walk a line between academic and popular readerships, with uneven results. On the one hand, the book is cluttered with endless lists of slang terms, graphs and charts as well as fits of academic jargon, all of which presumably lend it scholarly legitimacy. On the other hand, her prose is often lively -- in fact chummy to the point of grating -- and many of the broad conclusions she draws will seem persuasive to the general reader.
The literature of slang is vast, its two most important monuments being Eric Partridge's “Dictionary of Slang and Unconventional English” (1937) and Harold Wentworth and Stuart Berg Flexner's “Dictionary of American Slang” (1960). Coleman pays due if reserved respect to the former (she finds it useful but dated, which is fair enough) but mentions the latter only in passing, which is strange given the importance of American slang not only to her overall subject but also to her book. Coleman, J. The Life of Slang, Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2012, p. 67 Given that she is English, a British bias is understandable and forgivable in “The Life of Slang», but American readers are likely to feel that she gives too much attention to British slang of the 18th and 19th centuries and too little to the American slang that, for better and worse, has become a central part of the English-speaking world's vocabulary and, for that matter, has encroached on the vocabularies of other languages.
Like many others before her, Coleman is at pains to emphasize that there has always been tension between slang and standard English. “The arguments in favor of slang [are] about slang itself: it is vibrant, creative, and so on», she writes. “These qualities might be attributed to slang-creators. The arguments against [are] largely about slang-users: they're unintelligent and have limited vocabularies. And that's one of the reasons why I find it hard to take sides in this argument: slang words often are witty and appealing, but not all slang-users are. On the other hand, slang-users might be perfectly charming were it not for their irritating repetition of tired slang words. The arguments are based on an entirely false dichotomy. Because new slang is creative (i.e. new), the argument implies, Standard English isn't creative. Because some slang users have limited vocabularies, people who speak Standard English know more words. This is all nonsense.... What really sets slang apart from Standard English is the way it functions in social contexts: communicating meaning is often a secondary function for slang; it's really for communicating attitudes and cementing relationships».
Slang “creates in-groups and out-groups and acts as an emblem of belonging». To Coleman, “the importance of slang in creating and maintaining a sense of group or personal identity” is paramount, and all the evidence supports her. Groups that have developed slang as a way of cementing their identity include the military, especially in the lower ranks, though oddly enough her discussion does not include perhaps the most famous of all military slang words, “snafu”; African Americans, “the one group that has influenced contemporary American (and international English) slang more than any other”; the working classes; musicians, especially jazz musicians; the underworld, the language of which she calls “canting», which “usually implies some type of dishonesty and is now generally used with reference to the language of beggars, criminals, estate agents, politicians, and religious hypocrites”; and, of course, teenagers, who are now perhaps the most important and influential sources of slang, all the more so as consumerism, “in constantly striving for the latest new thing», uses slang to establish its hip bona fides.
Slang is, after all, short-lived by nature. In order for slang to stay «slangy», it has to have a feeling of novelty, a sense of naughtiness.
Slang is like fashion; never «in» for long. The word itself «FAD» originates in 1825-35; then fad was used in the context of looking after things, busy oneself with trifles i.e. «faddle to play with». Now, it means a craze; fashion that is taken up with great enthusiasm for a brief period of time. See lexicons change all the time and the semantic meanings of them too.
We tire of even the most popular words and phrases like «Am I bovverd». (From Catherine Tate's caricature of a teenage chav called Lauren) Now most students use it themselves without intentionally realising that they're using it.
By natural selection it is true that only the strong survive. Some words are retained for long periods and eventually become part of the standard language. Words such as phoney, blizzard, and movie would have been considered slang decade before, but now years later these words are squeezed into the English dictionary.
For example «Cool» is positively prehistoric by slang standards; it originated during the jazz culture of the late 1930s. But every generation since then has embraced it as its own. And, this is the same for «Ghetto», for instance, a word that dates to 1611.
There is no reason why one word stays alive while others get delivered to the scrapheap of linguistic history. It just happens! When one word is not liked or rarely used it is thrown out, like rubbish.
Are youngsters the ones who use slang?
A good deal of slang is heard in the common school playground, many children use cant (language of the underground) such as back slang and pig Latin so teachers do not find out what they are saying. Within schools, there is a demand for too much accuracy as opposed to creativity and imagination.
Every trade and profession, and every closely tight knit group have their own usage of slang. Groups like the: RAF (Royal Air Force), criminals and surfers. The theatrical profession say «break a leg» to do well and a sign of good luck. Therefore, most know which group they belong in.
Today's slang originates from hip-hop culture and rap music but that is not the only inspiration where our youngsters get this from. Matt Lucas's character of Vicky Pollard creates satire opinion of girl chavs.
In the classrooms you hear a parody of «yeah-but-no-but». In a sense-it's quite funny! To think this phrase has bounced from our small TV screens into normal everyday life.
It is Kate Burridge, professor of linguistics at Monash University in Australia, who is supporting a campaign to get the Little Britain's character, Vicky Pollard's phrase entered into the Cambridge English dictionary. Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. P. 102
John Simpson, chief editor of OED has no objection as «yeah-but-no-but» being included; if only it is widely used. However, prescriptive followers such Lynn Truss (writer of the bestseller Eats, Shoots & Leaves) would cause such riot.
They celebrate punctuation and make others brush up on grammar; they would not warm to this. Samuel Johnson, who wrote the first universally accepted dictionary in 1755, had no slang included in his dictionary. He thought that words such as «bamboozled», «capture» and «novel» were of low usage and unconventional. But these words are now standardised; taken for granted and hardly ever used. He said that this was «to stop the rot of the English language». He would turn in his grave to find out that slang now is being included in the dictionary in this day and age.
To us, parents and teachers, it may sound as if they are omitting disgruntled murmurs and moans. But the youths of today are very skilful. They can flip from one linguistics mode to another; depending on relevant situations revolving around them. They have good grasp as to when to use formal or informal language. This is multi-dialectal. This must be a good objective as they have become more socially aware.
Slang is merely cleverer than Standard English. It's catchy, and it can produce flashes of humour and even poetry.
The author, Gk Chesterton proposed that:
«All slang is metaphor and all metaphor is poetry».
Students use slang in an inventive form of language rather than a «low and of a vulgar type» that is usually presented. It requires more creativity; thinking time is needed to process how to use certain slangs in various situations.
Wasn't everyone young once?
Perhaps slang does have a degrading effect on public discourse. To these teens, slang is language- it's slangauge! It's the way they talk and think and feel. In the 1930s and 1940s, it was the swing and jitterbug culture that infected the hip talk of the day. In the 1950s it was the beats and fast-talking radio disc jockeys. In the 1960s, it was the long haired hippies and girls in minis who affected the language; even then the youngsters of every era were blamed for «corrupting» the English language. But what is true English? What is good English? Has true good English ever existed?
Slang is a linguistic movement which cannot be refrained from.
Ferdinand Sassure (Swiss Psycho Linguist) said that:
«Time changes all things. There is no reason why language should escape this universal law» and this makes sense. If time changes people then why shouldn't it change people's attitudes towards language variations?
Why is the idea of using slang despised by many?
Is slang misunderstood by those who don't understand what it means and how to use it or just plain bad mannered!
Is it because teens have a lower social status as a result adults feel threatened by them?
Or are teens «decaying» the language? Are we affronted? How dare they change our wonderful language?»
However, when Slang is used properly- it sparkles and lives for humour and emphasis.
It shouts independence! After all, any student can spot a fraud a mile away.
It is as if it can be hit in the face several times and still ask with a smile in its face more please. So what's the deal with us using it too; joining in with the kids will help us to understand students more and why they act in the way they do. Also slang is an attractive resource to analyse for language variation for linguists.
Should we join too? Instead of trying to force out «proper» English in to them why don't we join them. The inherent addiction to slang is that each generation has a chance to shape its own lexicon (words), and in so doing, exercise imagination and originality. I do admire the tenacity and determination of students who want to make a mark in English language. After all, each era wants to make their entity mark in history. The end result is a playful body of language that at times is used for no reason other than because it's fun to use.
In a way slang builds relationships and maintains bond. The main reason why we all use language is to communicate? Rules are important and we could «preserve» or «embalm» language. But what happens when English dies out because of this. This was the same case for Latin. Language is to help us view and outline our feelings to one another, this is what slang does! Overall slang and language variation is a good objective and fascinating to analyse.
2. Usage of Slang
2.1 The Purpose of Slang Usage
Slang is everywhere. There is no escaping it. Every person uses slang, whether they are concious of it or not. Different areas of the country use different types of slang depending on which words are most commonly used and acknowledged in that area. For example, in the South of England, the word 'moody' is sometimes substituted with 'teasy'. If this word was said somewhere other than where it originated from, people would probably not understand the meaning of it. This is because slang words are usually restricted to regions of the country. Therefore, these words are regional.
Slang words cannot be found in the dictionary because they are 'made up' words, however, as these words become more known throughout the country, they may find their way into the English dictionary as a Standard English word. Because slang words are 'made up' words, they cannot be literally translated into another language so when talking to a foreign student you must take care not to use slang extensively as they will not understand you.
Slang has been around forever. All countries have variations of 'Standard' words. There would not be enough room in any dictionary to accommodate all or even a vast amount of slang words. Below are some more examples of regional slang words.
Slang is a very informal kind of vocabulary. It is mostly used in speech by people who know each other well. These conversation words are not usually written. In fact, they are considered out of place in formal kinds of communication.
They are always into capers. (= mischief)
See you down at the boozer. (= See you down at the pub).
Uncle Sam has kicked the bucket. (= Uncle Sam has died).
I think he has lost his marbles. (= I think he has gone mad).
Slang expressions are very common in the speech of native English speakers. That doesn't necessarily mean that foreigners should use them deliberately.
Most slang expressions are used by people belonging to particular social or professional groups. What's more, nearly all of these expressions are used between people who know each other well. Foreigners and people belonging to different social backgrounds are not supposed to use slang deliberately. If they do, they will give the impression that they are claiming membership of a group they don't belong to.
Another problem with slang expressions is that they easily get out of date. Sure, slang gets into dictionaries. But the process usually takes a lot of time. By the time the books are out the slang is probably already dead Dumas, B.K., and Lighter, J. Is Slang a word for linguists? American Speech 53: 5-17.- 1978.
Non-native English speakers should, therefore, wait until they become a part of the community. And then they will start using their slang correctly and naturally.
2.. Influence of Slang on the English Language
When people speak in the vernacular, it might seem low class or crude, but it's important to understand how slang affects the English language. Language isn't static, and a language such as English is a collection and reinvention of the words of many other languages (primarily Latin and Greek, with the Romance languages filtering into it). As civilizations grow, change, and expand, so do the words in the language. Slang phrases such as “23 skidoo” might've been what the hep cat of 1925 was saying to his flapper girlfriend, but as time passes, particularly idiomatic phrases tend to fall by the wayside.
Now try and see how many people you know who have a clue as to what “23 skidoo” ever meant?
As it turns out, the expression probably came from the sight men saw around the Flat Iron Building in New York City, which is located on 23rd Street. Before the Roaring 20s, women in long skirts would pass by the building, which is a very angular triangle shape. The strong winds would roar around the corner as the women passed, causing their long skirts to fly up and expose their legs.
This was such a popular attraction that the police were forced to disperse the male crowds that hung around, waiting for the next “show” as women passed by. Hence, leaving anywhere very quickly, or being forced to leave fast, became known as the “23 skidoo”. http://grammar.yourdictionary.com/slang/how-slang-affects-the-english-language.html
Not all slang expressions disappear out of the language after they've served their purpose, or as the generation who used them assumes adulthood and “puts away childish things”.
In fact, the expression in one of the proceeding paragraphs is an example of a slang term that's become so absorbed into the English language that it's no longer mere slang, but a mainstream expression.
That's the phrase “hung out», or “hang out”. The phrase is commonly used today, and not just in casual settings. It's become so inculcated into our culture that one can use it, even in an executive board room, and no eyebrows will be raised in response.
So what's the source of “hang out”? Although there's evidence that the term was used as early as the 1830s to mean “loiter or idle about”, the current use of the phrase probably has a more recent incarnation.
In this context, the phrase comes probably is a derivative of speech peculiar to the 1960s hippie generation. These were teenagers and young adults who rejected “the establishment”, and developed their own particular ways of dressing, in music, and in language.
The point of much of their success was apparently how annoyed or upset adults would become by the behavior. They were easily upset by how slang affects the English language they used, and they wanted their kids to conform to societal norms.
So hippies or pseudo hippies (kids who still lived at home, but who admired the dress and lifestyle of the hippie generation) went to great lengths to avoid formality in any aspect of life. Being yourself, playing your own kind of music, or doing much of what the parents would consider inappropriate was termed “letting it all hang out».
The current phrase, “hang out», is probably derived from the hippies of several generations ago.
How Slang Affects the English Language
Slang is “street», as in ordinary, common and yet vivid expression to describe current life and events. It keeps the language from getting stale.
Some words that once were cool faded from use, only to be revived by the current generation. One such word, in fact, is “cool».
This is another expression that had its modern day beginnings with the 1960s hippies generation, but it probably goes back at least to the 1920s with the arrival of the jazz age. In the Flapper Era, jazz music was considered to be extremely cutting edge, and jazz musicians had their own modes and means of living Franklyn, Julian. A Dictionary of Rhyming Slang. London: Routledge, 1992, p. 90-95.
Some of that rubbed off on the Charleston dancers and the patrons of the speakeasy (another slang word for a bar with alcoholic beverages back when Prohibition made serving liquor illegal).
Jazz was “cool», as in sophisticated. The latter day hippies use of it meant that the object of coolness was singular and unique, a twist on the Jazz Age use of the word.
Such is how slang affects the English language.
3. Distinctive Peculiarities of British and American Slang
3.1 Main Characteristics of British Slang
British slang stems from Shakespeare to Chaucer and encompasses nearly every generation of human speech. From Cockney rhyming slang to short-lived colloquialisms, England contains a mixture of euphenisms that often leave Americans scratching their heads.
British slang, contrary to popular opinion, is not a lower-class trait. It stems from Shakespeare to Chaucer and encompasses nearly every generation of human speech. From Cockney rhyming slang to short-lived colloqialisms, England contains a mixture of euphenisms that often leave Americans scratching their heads. These words are not so hard to learn, however. Watch a bunch of really bad British movies, throw on your most pompous English accent, and use the following slang dictionary to sound like a wanky Brit, mate:
Absobloody lootely: absolutely
after: bars open after normal closing time
all over the gaff: unorganized
arse: butt
arse-over-tit: drunk
ballistic: wild
bangers: sausages
barmy: crazy
behave: more! (Think Austin Powers).
bob: shilling
blimey!: Oh geez!
bloke: a male
bobby: policeman
brilliant!: great! awesome!
cabbage: a slow person
cack: crap (What a load of cack, mate!)
cakehole: mouth (Shut your cakehole!)
Charlie: crack, cocaine
chips: french fries
chunder: to throw up
ciggy: cigarette
cop a feel: to feel someone up
to cop it: to get in trouble
copper: policeman
Crikey!: My God!
damage: cost
Dicky: feeling unwell
doddle: something easy (It was a doddle to get the Charlie).
dodgy: shady
done over: beat up (He was done over by that bloke).
Doris: a plain woman
dosh: money
duck and dive: to run from the police
earner: a dishonest laborer
eppy: a fit
faced: drunk
five finger discount: shoplifting
flim-flam: crap (Cut out this flim-flam, you wanker!)
flippin: freakin'
folding: paper pound-notes
For crying out loud!: For God's sake!
Frenchy: a french kiss
full monty: the entire take, all that is desired
funny farm: a mental institution
gab: to talk a lot
gander: to look at
geezer: an old man
get the nod: to get permission
git: an unlikeable person
gob: mouth
goppin': gross
greaser: a 50's style person, usually a man
grub: food
gutted: choked up (He was gutted at the funeral, mate).
hacked off: annoyed (He was really hacked off at that copper).
having it off: a term for intercourse
headcase: a nutcase
hold it down: keep the noise down, control yourself
hooter: nose
ickle: small, tiny (I like that an ickle bit, mate).
iffy: doubting, doubtful
in stook: in financial trouble (Your uncle's in stook, mate).
inside: imprisoned (Barry's inside again).
jammy: lucky
jar: a pint of beer
jock: a Scottish man
jugs: breasts
juiced up: very drunk
kick it off: start something, a fight with another Brit perhaps
kip: sleep (I need some kip, mate).
knackered: tired
knock-up: to wake someone up
lairy: loud, brash
larging it: to live large
lip: smart talk
loaded: very rich
lock-in: a term for late-hours in a pub
lolly: money
lost the plot: gone mad (That nutter's completely lost the plot!)
malarkey: stuff and nonsense (What a load of malarkey!)
mate: address for a friend
mental: crazy
miffed: fed up
minger: an unattractive girl
mint: great condition (That's mint, mate).
mitts: hands Labov, T., `Social structure and peer terminology in a black adolescent gang', in Language and Society 2, 1982, p. 391-410
This dictionary is by no means exhaustive, but it should give you an idea of the most common British slang terms and their proper use.
Fashions and times change and this means that slang words and phrases often change also. In the second world war a Spiv was a person who traded goods on the black market, for example. These days the British language has plenty of American expressions used on a daily basis.
The most specific variant British slang is Cockney.
Background of Cockney English:
Due to the fact that London is both the political capital and the largest city within England, Wells, (1982b) doesn't find it surprising that it's also the country's «linguistic center of gravity». Cockney represents the basilectal end of the London accent and can be considered the broadest form of London local accent.(Wells 1982b) It traditionally refers only to specific regions and speakers within the city. While many Londoners may speak what is referred to as «popular London» (Wells 1982b) they do not necessarily speak Cockney. The popular Londoner accent can be distinguished from Cockney in a number of ways, and can also be found outside of the capital, unlike the true Cockney accent.
The term Cockney refers to both the accent as well as to those people who speak it? The etymology of Cockney has long been discussed and disputed. One explanation is that «Cockney» literally means cock's egg, a misshapen egg such as sometimes laid by young hens. It was originally used when referring to a weak townsman, opposed to the tougher countryman and by the 17th century the term, through banter, came to mean a Londoner (Liberman, 1996). Today's natives of London, especially in its East End use the term with respect and pride - `Cockney Pride').
Cockney is characterized by its own special vocabulary and usage, and traditionally by its own development of «rhyming slang». Rhyming slang, is still part of the true Cockney culture even if it is sometimes used for effect. More information on the way it works can be found under the Cockney English features section.
Sociolinguistic issues of Cockney English:
The Cockney accent is generally considered one of the broadest of the British accents and is heavily stimatized. It is considered to epitomize the working class accents of Londoners and in its more diluted form, of other areas. The area and its colorful characters and accents have often become the foundation for British «soap operas» and other television specials. Currently, the BBC is showing one of the most popular soaps set in this region, «East Enders» and the characters' accents and lives within this television program provide wonderful opportunities for observers of language and culture.
Features of Cockney English:
Some of the more characteristic features of the Cockney accent include the following:
Monophthongization
This affects the lexical set mouth vowel.
MOUTH vowel
Wells (1982b) believes that it is widely agreed that the «mouth» vowel is a «touchstone for distinguishing between «true Cockney» and popular London» and other more standard accents. Cockney usage would include monophthongization of the word mouth
Example:
mouth = mauf rather than mouth
Glottal stop
Wells (1982b) describes the glottal stop as also particularly characteristic of Cockney and can be manifested in different ways such as «t» glottalling in final position. A 1970's study of schoolchildren living in the East End found /p,t,k/ «almost invariably glottalized» in final position.
It can also manifest itself as a bare as the realization of word internal intervocalic /t/
Examples:
Waterloo = Wa'erloo
City = Ci'y
A drink of water = A drin' a wa'er
A little bit of bread with a bit of butter on it = A li'le bi' of breab wiv a bi' of bu'er on i'. Lillo, Antonio. "From Alsatian Dog to Wooden Shoe: Linguistic Xenophobia in Rhyming Slang." English Studies 82 (4), 2001, p. 336
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