Predicate in Modern English Grammar and Ways of Expressing it on the basis of "Pride and Prejudice"

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Introduction

Studying the structure of present-day English is quite actual, since comprehension of the language is one of the most important aspects while studying the target language, for all the languages differ from the point of view of their morphological and syntactical structure. While studying English foreign learners cannot avoid making mistakes. One of the most striking features of Modern English is the system of the verb, hence on syntactical level predicate from the point of view of many students is considered one of the most difficult and confusing. The Diploma thesis “Predicate in Modern English Grammar and Ways of Expressing it on the basis of `Pride and Prejudice' by Jane Austen' is a study of the present day English predicate , and the ways of expressing it in English.

Thus, the aim of our work is, on the one hand, to investigate the main peculiarities of the English predicate, as one of the principle parts of sentence, trying to define its function, meaning and classification; and on the other hand, to analyze the novel “Pride and Prejudice” by Jane Austen from the linguistic point of view, namely, to find out the ways the predicate is expressed in this novel, as well as to present the statistic data on the predicate used in the novel.

For the realization of this purpose it is necessary:

- to investigate the notion and structure of the English predicate;

to analyze the main peculiarities of the predicate;

to analyze the types of predicate;

to analyze the predicate found in Jane Austen's novel `Pride and Prejudice';

to give the statistic data on the examples of the predicate taken from the novel.

To accomplish the main objectives the following methods of investigations were used:

- critical analysis of the investigated material;

- comparative method;

- analysis, synthesis, generalization;

The theoretical basis for the Diploma Thesis was research works of Moldovan and foreign linguists.

The practical value of the Diploma Thesis is determined by the fact that the present material can be used when teaching or learning English Syntax, namely, Principle Parts of Sentence - the Predicate.

The present work consists of an Introduction, three Chapters, Conclusion, Bibliography and Appendix.

Chapter I deals with the structural classification of the English predicate; the structure and the means of expressing simple and compound predicates, both nominal and verbal, are described.

In Chapter II we will pay attention to agreement of the predicate with the subject, the phenomena often forgotten by foreign learners.

Chapter III is dedicated to the types and ways of expressing the predicate in the literary work of the famous British writer, Jane Austen, “Pride and Prejudice”.

And, of course, the present paper has Conclusions where the summing up of all the analysis, generalizations are stated in.

The Appendix comprises diagrams showing the statistic data on the types of predicate used in the novel.

1. Structural classification of the present day English predicate

In a sentence we distinguish the principal parts, secondary parts and independent elements. The principal parts of a sentence are the subject and the predicate. The secondary parts are the attribute, the object and the adverbial modifier. The predicate is the second main part of the sentence and its organizing centre, as the object and nearly all adverbial modifiers are connected with, and dependent on, it. The predicate may be considered from the semantic or from the structural point of view. Structurally the predicate in English expressed by a finite verb agrees with the subject in number and person. The only exception to this rule is a compound modal and a simple nominal predicate, the latter having no verb form at all. According to the meaning of its components, the predicate may denote an action, a state, a quality, or an attitude to some action or state ascribed to the subject. These different meanings find their expression in the structure of the predicate and the lexical meaning of its constituents.

From the structural point of view there are two main types of predicate: the simple predicate and the compound predicate. Both these types may be either nominal or verbal, which gives four sub-groups: simple verbal, simple nominal, compound verbal, compound nominal. Compound verbal predicates may be further classified into phasal, modal and of double orientation Compound nominal predicates may be classified into nominal proper and double nominal.

It should be noted that the English predicate may be classified not only to simple and compound, but also to mixed one.

1.1 The Simple Predicate in Modern English

1.1.1 The Simple Nominal Predicate in Modern English

The simple nominal predicate does not contain a finite verb and is expressed by a noun, or an adjective, or a verbal. It does not contain a link verb, thus in the meaning of the simple nominal predicate there is an implied negation. This type of predicate is usually used in exclamations of absurdity.

He, a gentleman! Rondal, jealous!

You, a bother! Never. Nick, dishonest!

Fred, a priest! Such an old lady to come so far!

Sentences with the simple nominal predicate are always exclamatory evidently owing to the implication of a negation or of an evaluation.

The predicate is mostly separated by a comma, which is not regarded as a strict rule. Such predicates are used in colloquial English, although not frequently.

The simple nominal predicate can be expressed by:

a. a noun;

My son a clergyman!

She, a nun!

Me, a liar!

b. an adjective;

My ideas obsolete!

Ronnie, good-looking!

You sad!

c. an infinitive or an infinitive phrase;

Hercule Poirot to sleep while murder is committed!

My boy insult a gentleman at my table!

d. Participle I or a participial phrase.

She spying!

Me trying to be funny!

1.1.2 The Simple Verbal Predicate in Modern English

The simple verbal predicate denotes an action or a state which is represented as an action. It may be expressed by:

1. a verb in a synthetic or analytical form;

John runs quickly. (synthetic form of the verb)

I was sent in to get my tea. (analytical form of the verb)

When did life begin on earth? (analytical form of the verb)

I didn't care about the consequence. (analytical form of the verb)

Don't come too late. (analytical form of the verb)

2. a verb phrase denoting:

a) single actions: to have a look, to have a smoke, to have a talk, to give a look, to give a laugh, to give a cry, to take a look, to make a move, to make a remark, to pay a visit, etc; they comprise a transitive verb and a deverbal noun with the indefinite article.

Nurse Sharp gave him a look and walked out.

The man gave a violent start.

Did you have a sleep?

It's time we were making a move.

b) various kinds of actions; in most cases they comprise an abstract noun

used with no article but often preceded by an attribute:

to change one's mind, to get rid (of), to get hold (of), to lose sight (of), to make fun (of), to make up one's mind, to make use (of), to take care (of), to take leave (of), to take part (in), etc.

I have never taken much interest in German songs.

She paid little heed to what was going on in the world outside.

Are you taking part in the concert?

There is a great difference of opinion as to the nature of this predicate. As it was mentioned by Kaushanskaya V. L. most Soviet grammarians treat this type of predicate as a subdivision of the simple predicate since the components of this predicate express one idea. [31, p.230] The characteristic feature of this predicate is that the first component - the finite verb - forms one unit with the noun, hence the noun cannot be treated as an object to the verb.

cf.My friend gave me an interesting book to read.

The man gave a violent start.

1.2 The Compound Predicate in Modern English

The compound predicate consists of two parts: the notional and the structural. The structural part comes first and is followed by the notional part.

The structural part is expressed by a finite verb - a phasal verb, a modal verb, a verb expressing attitude, intention, planning, etc., or a link verb, and it is the most important component of the compound predicate as it carries grammatical information about the person, number, tense, voice, modal, attitudinal and aspective (phasal) meaning of the whole predicate.

The notional part may be expressed by a noun, an adjective, a stative, an adverb, a verbal, a phrase, a predicative complex, or a clause. Since the notional part contains the information about the person or non-person expressed by the subject, it is the most significant component of the compound predicate from the point of view of meaning.

The compound predicate may be nominal or verbal.

1.2.1 The Compound Nominal Predicate in Present Day English

The compound nominal predicate denotes:

the state or quality of the person or thing expressed by the subject

He is tired. The book is interesting

the class of persons or things to which this person or thing belongs

She is a student.

The compound nominal predicate consists of a link verb and a predicative (nominal part). The link verb is the structural element of the predicate and joins the subject and the predicative. It expresses the grammatical categories of person, number, tense, aspect and mood. The predicative is the notional part of the compound nominal predicate. It characterizes the person or non-person expressed by the subject. The characterization may concern the following:

1. The properties of the person or non-person (the state or quality or quantity of it).

The girl looked tired but pretty. I felt sore for a minute.

But he is not always alone. The visibility seemed very good.

He was forty and in his prime. We are seven.

2. The identity of the person or non-person, in other words, what class of persons or things they belong to.

This man is my father.

Old Mr. Clare was a clergyman.

Miss Sedley's papa was a man of some wealth.

As it has been mentioned above, the link verb is a structural element of the compound nominal predicate which joins the predicative with the subject. However, one should distinguish auxiliary verbs, which are also structural elements of the synthetic form of the simple verbal predicate, from the link-verbs. Among the class of link verbs we may distinguish:

1. the verbs which have completely lost their original lexical meaning (to be, to get).

He is just the kind of man I want.

Elisabeth got very restless.

2. the verbs which have only partly lost their lexical meaning (to remain, to become, to grow, to turn, to look, to seem).

That request seemed superfluous.

The room looked snug and cheerful.

Ellen's eyes grew moist.

3. the verbs which have fully preserved their lexical meaning but still serve as link-verbs followed by a predicative. They are used in the passive voice: to elect, to call, to leave, to keep, to make. [33, p.239]

The boy was called John.

She was left alone.

He was elected president.

According to their semantic characteristics link verbs fall into three groups:

link-verbs of being;

link-verbs of becoming;

link-verbs of remaining.

Link-verb of being

To this kind of link-verb refer the following ones: to be, to feel, to sound, to smell, to t ste, to look, to appear, to seem, etc. Of these only the verb to be is a pure link-verb of being, as the others may have some additional meaning.

His face looked awful all the time.

I felt better pleased than ever.

His voice sounded cold and hostile.

He seemed bewildered.

Everything appeared very grand and imposing to me.

Link-verb of becoming: to become, to grow, to turn, to get, to make.

The noise of the rattling dishes becomes intolerable.

The Elephant's Child's nose grew longer and longer.

The girl's face suddenly turned red.

Link-verb of remaining: to remain, to continue, to keep, to stay.

She remained vexed with him.

The children kept suspiciously silent.

Most link verbs to some extent preserve their meaning. The following are the most common of these link verbs: to appear, to get, to grow, to continue, to feel, to keep, to look, to turn, to hold, to prove, to turn out, to loom, to rank, to remain, to run, to seem, to smell, to taste, to fall, to stand, to go, to work. Many of these verbs can be used both as verbs of complete predication fully preserving their concrete meaning and as link verbs.[31,p.33]

LINK VERBS	VERBS OF COMPLETE PREDICATION
to be
The sun was full of promise.	No one was there to meet him.
to grow
But she had grown too proud or too passive.	Perhaps I should grow a beard. I look too young to have been publishing for five years.
to look
He looked stupid and good-natured and happy.	He blushed violently and looked away.
to feel
And yet at moments he felt very close to her.	He felt great awe and admiration.
to come
The nightmare of my life had come true.	Giles and Beatrice were coming for the night but nobody else.
to go
Philip Baring stiffened in his chair. His face went tense.	Of a misty January morning Soames had gone there once more.

There are some verbs which, though fully preserving their concrete meaning, perform the function of link verbs: they are used with a predicative and form a compound nominal predicate. Here belong: to lie, to sit, to die, to marry, to return to leave, to come, to stand, to fall, to go, etc.

After many adventures I and a little girl lay senseless in the Bad Lands.

The poor woman sat amazed.

I stood transfixed with awe and joy.

Here the important thing is not that the speaker stood but that he stood transfixed with awe and joy.

Sometimes the predicative does not immediately follow these verbs but is separated from them by an adverbial.

One evening she came home elated.

Ways of Expressing the Predicative

The predicative can be expressed by:

1. a noun in the common case or in the genitive case;

Miss Sedly's father was a merchant.

The face was Victoria's.

2. an adjective or an adjective phrase;

Ellen's eyes grew angry.

She was full of enthusiasm.

The man was difficult to convince.

3. a pronoun:

It was he.

It's me.

She is somebody.

The hat is mine.

Who are you? She was not herself yet.

4. a numeral:

He was sixty last year.

I'm the first.

5. an infinitive (or an infinitive phrase or construction):

His first thought was to run away.

My idea is to go there myself.

The only thing to do is for you to whip him.

6. a gerund (or a gerundial phrase or construction):

My hobby is dancing and his is collecting stamps.

The main problem was his being away at the moment.

7. a participle or a participial phrase.

The subject seemed strangely chosen.

Participle I seldom occurs in this function unless it has become an adjective.

That sounded quite distressing.

8. a prepositional phrase

She is on our side.

9. a stative

I was wide awake by this time. .

10. an indivisible group of words

It is nine o'clock already.

11. a clause

That's what has happened.

The Objective Predicative

Besides the predicative referring to the subject, another type of predicative referring to the object can be found in English. It is generally called the Objective Predicative. It expresses the state or quality of the person or thing denoted by the object and is generally expressed by a noun, an adjective, a word denoting state, or a prepositional phrase. [31, p.236]

He appointed Bush secretary in his stead.

Lord and Lady Masham... left him alone with them.

In a few minutes I came to myself and he carried me safe to my little nurse.

They painted the door green.

The Objective Predicative does not form part of the predicate, in this case the predicate is simple.

Semantic Characteristics of the Predicative

The three most typical semantic characteristics of a predicative are: identification, classification and characterization.

A. An identifying predicative expresses equality between the notion expressed by the predicative and by the subject, or means that they are of the same rank or value. In this case the predicative and the subject are positionally interchangeable. Such predicatives are expressed by a noun with the definite article.

London is the capital of Britain. = The capital of Britain is London.

Mount Everest is the highest mountain in the world. = The highest mountain in the world is Mount Everest.

B. A classifying predicative names a class of persons or non-persons to which that denoted by the subject belongs. The predicative in this case is expressed by a noun with the indefinite article.

John is a student.

My father is a teacher.

This is a book.

C. A characterizing predicative denotes a state or quality of a person or non-person and is expressed by an adjective or a stative.

The room is dark.

The sky was blue.

The patient fell asleep.

A characterizing predicative may also be a noun which in this case has no article.

He turned traitor.

He was elected president.

The Compound Nominal Double Predicate

The compound nominal double predicate combines, as its name suggests, the features of two different types of predicate. It has the features of the simple verbal predicate and those of the compound nominal predicate. It consists of two parts, both of which are notional. The first one is verbal and is expressed by a notional verb denoting an action or process performed by the person/non-person expressed by the subject. From this point of view it resembles the simple verbal predicate. But at the same time the verbal part of this predicate performs a linking function, as it links its second part (which is a predicative) to the subject.

The second part of the compound nominal double predicate is expressed by a noun or an adjective which denotes the properties of the subject in the same way as the predicative of the compound nominal predicate proper does.

The moon was shining cold and bright.

The predicate here denotes two separate notions:

1) The moon was shining, and at the same time

2) The moon was cold and bright.

There are a number of verbs that often occur in this type of predicate, performing the double function of denoting a process and serving as link verbs at the same time. They are: to die, to leave, to lie, to marry, to return, to rise, to sit, to stand, to shine, etc. As in Modern English there is a growing tendency to use this type of predicate, the verbs occurring in it are not limited by any particular lexical class.

My daughter sat silent.

He died a hero.

She married young.

The light came gray and pale.

The men stood silent and motionless.

They met friends and parted enemies.

The moon rose round and yellow.

1.2.2 The Compound Verbal Predicate

As it has been mentioned above the compound predicate consists of two parts: the notional and the structural. The structural part comes first and is followed by the notional part.

From semantic point of view the most important part of the compound predicate is the notional part as it contains the information about the person or non-person expressed by the subject, while from the point of view of structure the most important part of the predicate is the first one.

The compound verbal predicate can be divided into two types according to the meaning of the finite verb:

(1) the compound verbal modal predicate;

(2) the compound verbal aspect (phasal) predicate.

It should be noted that by `aspect' we imply the lexical meaning of certain verbs as denoting the beginning, the duration and the cessation of the action.

The Compound Verbal Modal Predicate

The compound verbal modal predicate consists of a modal part and an infinitive (or a gerund). It shows whether the action expressed by an infinitive is looked upon as possible, impossible, obligatory, necessary, desirable, planned, certain, permissible, etc. In most cases it denotes the attitude to the action of the person expressed by the subject or by the speaker.

The modal part may be expressed by:

A. a modal verb and an infinitive:

Here belong the combinations of such verbs as can, may, must, should, would, ought, dare, need with an infinitive.

You can prove everything and nothing.

His aunt would not give him the photograph.

B. modal expressions: to be + Infinitive, to have + Infinitive:

The loudspeaker operation was to take place in С. Company's sector.

I have to work for my living.

C. a verb with a modal meaning and an infinitive or a gerund:

Here belong such verbs as to hope, to expect, to intend, to attempt, to try, to endeavour, to long, to wish, to want, to desire, etc. Verbs with a modal meaning should not be confused with modal verbs as such, which in the English language form a special group of defective verbs [31, p. 237]

He wanted to throw himself into the whirlpool of Paris.

We intend going to Switzerland, and climbing Mount Blanc.

Of course she longs to have a ball in her honour.

Certainly I don't mean to take advantage of my position.

Harris tried to open the tin with a pocket knife and broke the knife and cut himself badly.

D. modal expressions and an infinitive:

They are synonymous with modal verbs or verbs with a modal meaning. Here belong the combinations of such expressions as to be able, to be obliged, to be bound, to be willing, to be anxious, to be capable, to be going with an infinitive.

Baring had been obliged to forego making friends.

I am going to leave Paris.

We are most anxious to cooperate.

E. verbs and expressions used in the predicate of sentences containing the Subjective Infinitive Construction (Nominative-with-the-Infinitive Construction).

These words and expressions show the attitude of the speaker towards the person or thing expressed by the subject.

A ship -- the Vestris -- is reported to be arriving at Joppa.

About 4,000 port workers are believed to be on strike.

Naturally all this had some chilling discouraging effect on him, but he appeared not to hold it against her.

I happen to know his car was seen here yesterday afternoon.

Just at this moment you seem to be having difficulty with your left hand.

The Compound Verbal Aspect Predicate

The compound verbal phasal predicate denotes the beginning, duration, repetition or cessation of the action expressed by an infinitive or a gerund. The the notional component of the compound verbal aspect predicate is expressed by an infinitive or a gerund; and structural component contains a phasal verb. We distinguish the phasal verbs of:

A. beginning:to begin, to start, to commence, to set about, to take to,

to fall to, to come.

Andrew and he began to talk about the famous clinic.

Jack started training out at Hogan's health farm.

So I took to going to the farm.

He fell to poking the fire with all his might.

I come to think that you are right.

B. duration:to go on, to keep, to proceed, to continue.

The talk kept running on the possibility of a storm.

As we continued to laugh his surprise gave way to annoyance.

C. repetition:would, used (denoting a repeated action in the past).

Alfredo used to talk to me about it.

During her small leisure hours she would sit by the window or walk in the fields.

D. cessation:to stop, to finish, to cease, to give up, to leave off.

The band had ceased playing.

Give up smoking.

Note the difference in the functions of the gerund and the infinitive after the verb to stop.

She stopped talking to him. (part of a compound verbal phasal predicate)

She stopped to talk to him. (an adverbial modifier of purpose)

The Compound Verbal Predicate of Double Orientation

The compound verbal predicate of double orientation consists of two parts. The first part is a finite verb which denotes the attitude to, evaluation of, or comment on, the content of the sentence expressed by the speaker or somebody not mentioned in the sentence. The second part denotes the action which is (was/will be) performed by the person/non-person expressed by the subject.

The Gadfly seemed to have taken a dislike to her. - It seemed (to the people) that the Gadfly had taken a dislike to her.

Philip Bosinney was known to be a young man without fortune. - They knew that Philip Bosinney was a young man without fortune.

He is said to be looking for a new job.

The plane is reported to have been lost.

In this case we see different orientation of the actions which are regarded from two points of view: that of the speaker and that of the person (or non-person) expressed by the subject. In a number of cases semantically this type of predicate has much in common with the compound verbal modal predicate, as in: You can't have misunderstood me, but formally these predicates are different, because in the compound verbal modal predicate the first component is a modal verb, whereas in the compound predicate of double orientation it is a verb or phrase expressing attitude, evaluation, or comment. They belong to one of the following verb groups:

1. intransitive verbs of seeming or happening with the general meaning of evaluation in the active voice: to seem, to appear, to prove, to turn out, to happen, to chance;

He seemed to understand everything I said.

Money just doesn't happen to interest me.

No one appears to have noticed his escape.

2. some verbs in the passive voice:

a) verbs of saying: to say, to declare, to state, to report, to rumour;

This country is said to be rich in oil.

The rocket is reported to have started its night at 6.30.

b) verbs of mental activity: to believe, to consider, to expect, to find, to know, to mean, to presume, to regard, to suppose, to think,to understand.

Mr. Sharp was always expected to say he preferred cold meat.

He has never been known to lose his temper before.

1.3 The Mixed Type of Predicate in Modern English

Besides the compound nominal predicate, the compound verbal modal predicate and the compound verbal aspect predicate, there is a type of predicate in which we have elements of two types of predicates. Such predicates contain three components.

1. The Compound Modal Nominal Predicate

Don't think I mean to be unkind.

The nephew was to be the means of introduction.

2. The Compound Aspect Nominal Predicate

I continued to be glad for that.

I began to feel rather hungry.

He was beginning to look desperate.

George began to be rather ashamed.

3. The Compound Modal Aspect Nominal Predicate

You ought to stop doing that.

He can't continue training.

4. The compound nominal predicate of double orientation

Mrs Bacon is said to be very ill.

Walter seems to be unhappy.

2. Agreement of the predicate with the subject

The most important type of agreement (concord) in English is that of the subject and the predicate in number and person. Thus a singular noun-subject requires a singular verb-predicate, a plural noun-subject requires a plural verb-predicate.

This rule of purely grammatical agreement concerns all present tenses (except modal verbs) and also the past indefinite of the verb to be.

World literature knows many great humorists.

Great humorists know how to make people laugh.

This rule remains true for:

a) All link verbs irrespective of the number of the predicative noun, as in:

Our only guide was the Polar star.

Our only guide was the stars.

b) The predicate of emphatic constructions with the formal subject it.

It was my friends who suddenly arrived.

It's they who are responsible for the delay.

2.1 The Use of the Singular Verb-Predicate

The verb-predicate is in the singular if the subject is expressed by:

1. an infinitive phrase or phrases;

To know everything is to know nothing.

To be loved and to be wanted is always good.

2. a prepositional phrase;

After the meeting is the time to speak.

3. a clause introduced by a conjunction or conjunctive adverb;

Where you found him does not concern me.

How you got there is beyond my understanding.

Whether you find him or not does not concern me.

Subject clauses introduced by conjunctive pronouns what, who may be followed by either a singular or plural verb.

What I want to do is to save us.

What were once precious manuscripts were scattered all over the floor.

What I say and what I think are my own affair.

4. a numerical expression, such as arithmetical addition, subtraction, division;

Four and four is eight.

Four minus two is two.

Ten divided by five is two.

However multiplication admits of two variants.

Twice two is/are four

5. the group many a + noun;

Many a man has done it.

6. With there - constructions followed by subjects of different number, the predicate agrees with the subject that stands first. The same holds true for sentences with here.

There was a textbook and many notebooks on the table.

There were many notebooks and textbook on the table.

Here was Tom and Peter.

Here was a man, was experience and culture.

In informal style, however, the singular verb is often used before the subject in the plural if the form of the verb is contracted.

Is there any place in town that might have them? - There's two.

There's too many of them living up there.

There's two kinds of men here, you'll find.

7. Plural nouns or phrases when they are used as names, titles, quotations.

“Fathers and Sons” is the most popular of Turgenev's novels.

Pronouns as subject

1. Indefinite pronouns (somebody, someone, anybody),universal pronouns (everybody, everyone, everything, each, either), negative pronouns (nobody, no one, neither, etc.) take a singular predicate.

Somebody is asking for you.

Nobody has come except me.

Everyone of us is present.

Neither of the students has made a mistake.

Each has answered well.

However, none has a plural verb-predicate.

None were here.

None of us understand it.

None of them have come.

The pronoun all may take both singular and plural verb.

All is well that ends well.

All that glitters is not gold.

All were in favour of the plan.

2. Interrogative pronouns who, what take a singular verb-predicate.

Who has come? What is there?

But if the pronoun denotes more than one person or thing a plural verb-predicate is used.

Who are walking in the garden?

3. With relative pronouns the form of the verb depends on the noun or pronoun which is its antecedent.

Do you know the girl who lives next door? (The girl lives...)

Do you know the girls who live next door? (The girls live...)

Mary is one of those girls who never know what they will do next.

Even I, who have seen it all, can hardly believe it.

It is you who are right. It is I who am wrong.

4. The universal pronoun both has a plural verb-predicate.

Which of the letters are yours? Both are mine.

2.2 The Use of the Plural Verb-Predicate

A plural verb-predicate is used in the following cases:

1. With homogeneous subjects connected by and.

Sun and air are necessary for life.

Tom and Mary are my friends.

The ebb and the flow of the tide are regular.

However, with structures where coordinated nouns refer to one thing or person a singular verb-predicate is used

Bacon and eggs makes a traditional English breakfast. (one dish is meant) Bread and butter is not enough for breakfast. (one object is meant)

The painter and decorator is here. (one person is meant)

If the article is repeated, the reference is to two persons or objects, and a plural verb-predicate is used.

The bread and the butter are on the table.

(two separate object are meant)

The painter and the decorator are here.

(two persons are meant)

Likewise, when a singular noun-subject has two attributes characterizing the same person or non-person connected by and it has a singular verb and the article is not repeated.

A tall and beautiful girl was waiting in the office.

A black and white kitten was playing on the hearth rug.

But if the attributes characterize different persons or non-persons the verb is in the plural and the article is repeated.

A black and a white kitten were playing on the hearth rug.

(A black kitten was playing and a white kitten was playing.)

The yellow and the red car were badly damaged.

However, the article is repeated before each attribute only with countable nouns. Uncountables have no article.

In modern hotels hot and cold water are supplied in every room American and Dutch beer are both much lighter than British.

2. With homogeneous subjects connected by both... and.

Both the bread and the butter are fresh.

Both the teacher and the students have come.

With homogeneous subjects connected by the conjunctions not only... hut also, either... or, or, neither... nor the verb-predicate agrees with the nearest noun-subject. (This is the so-called “proximity rule”.)

Either my sister or my parents are at home.

Either my parents or my sister is at home.

Neither you nor I am right.

Neither I nor you are right.

Not only my parents but also my brother knows about it.

Not only my brother but also my parents know about it.

Is Tom or Mary eager to meet you at the station?

With homogeneous subjects connected by the conjunctions as well as, rather than, as much as, more than the verb-predicate agrees with the first one.

My parents as well as my sister are teachers.

My sister as well as my parents is a teacher.

The manager as well as/rather than/more than/as much as the members of the board is responsible for the present situation.

2.3 Notional Agreement

Notional agreement is to be found in the following cases:

1. In modern English agreement there may be a conflict between form and meaning. It refers first of all to subjects expressed by nouns of multitude, which may denote plurality being singular in form. In such cases the principle of grammatical agreement is not observed and there appears the so-called notional agreement, when the choice of the number is based on the fact whether the group of beings is considered as one whole or, as a collection of individuals taken separately (as discrete ones).

Thus the nouns of multitude (band, board, crew, committee, crowd, company, clergy, cattle, family, gang, group, guard, gentry, infantry, jury, militia, police, poultry, team) may have both a plural verb-predicate and a singular one depending on what is meant - a single undivided body or a group of separate individuals.

A new government has been formed.

The government have asked me to go, so I am leaving now.

It was now nearly eleven о'clock and the congregation were arriving...

The congregation was small.

How are your family?

Our family has always been a very happy one.

The commanding officer does not know where his cavalry is and his cavalry are not completely sure of their situation.

The crowd was enormous.

The crowd were silent.

The police is already informed.

I don't know what the police are doing.

The cattle is in the mountains.

The cattle have stopped grazing. They know before you hear any sound that planes are approaching.

The jury decides whether the accused is guilty or not.

2. Subjects expressed by nouns denoting measure, weight, time, etc., have a singular verb-predicate when the statement is made about the whole amount, not about the discrete units.

Ten years is a long time.

Another five minutes goes by.

A million francs is a lot of money.

3. Notional agreement is also observed with subjects expressed by word-groups including nouns of quantity: a/the number of..., a/the majority of..., (a) part of..., the bulk of..., a variety of... . These admit of either a singular or a plural verb-predicate.

The number of pages in this book isn't large.

In Elisabeth's reign the bulk of English vegetable supplies were imported from Holland.

4. Subjects expressed by such invariable plural nouns as goods, contents, riches, clothes, wages, eaves have a plural verb.

His wages were only 15 shillings a week.

I asked her what the contents were about.

His clothes were shabby.

The goods were delivered on time.

5. Subjects expressed by such invariable singular nouns as hair, money, gate, information, funeral, progress, advice have a singular verb-predicate. These are called “singularia tantum” , as they have no plural.

Her hair is beautiful.

The money is mine.

The gate is open.

The information was unusually interesting.

If the funeral is so detestable to you, you don't have to go to it.

6. Subjects expressed by invariable nouns ending in -s and denoting an indivisible notion or thing have a singular verb-predicate : measles, mumps, billiards, dominoes, linguistics, economics, news, headquarters, works.

No news is good news.

The new works that has been built in our district is very large.

Though nouns in -ics which are names of sciences and other abstract notions have a singular agreement when used in their abstract sense; they may have a plural verb-predicate when denoting qualities, practical applications, different activities, etc. (ethics - “moral rules”, gymnastics - “physical exercises”). Thus these nouns may be followed by either a singular or a plural verb.

7. Subjects expressed by substantivized adjectives denoting groups of people (the blind, the dumb and deaf, the eminent, the mute, the old, the poor, the rich, etc.) always take the plural verb-predicate.

He did not look an important personage, but the emminent rarely do.

In the English language the predicate agrees with the subject in person and number.

3. The use of the predicates in modern English (on the basis of “Pride and prejudice” Jane Austen

3.1 Types and Ways of Expressing Simple Predicate in Modern English

Observing his second daughter employed in trimming a hat, he suddenly addressed her. [1,p. 1]

The predicate of the sentence `addressed' is a simple verbal predicate expressed by a synthetic past tense form of the verb `to address'

The evening altogether passed off pleasantly to the whole family. [1,p. 1]

The synthetic past tense form of the phrasal verb `passed off' performs the function of the simple verbal predicate consist of the phrasal verb `to pass off'.

Mr. Darcy, with grave propriety, requested to be allowed the honor of her hand, but in vain. [1,p. 1]

The sentence has got only one predicate - a simple verbal predicate - which is expressed by a synthetic past tense form of the verb

At five o'clock the two ladies retired to dress, and at half-past six Elizabeth was summoned to dinner. [1,p.1 ]

The example is a compound sentence and comprises two clauses. The predicate in the principle is a simple verbal predicate expressed by a synthetic form of the notional verb `to retire' - `retired'. while the predicate in the subordinate clause is expressed by an analytical past tenses passive form of the verb `summon' - `was summoned'.

Mrs. Hurst and Miss Bingley had spent some hours of the morning with the invalid, who continued, though slowly, to mend; and in the evening Elizabeth joined their party in the drawing-room. [1,p. 1]

There are three predicates in the compound sentence; the first one, `had spent' is a simple verbal predicate expressed by a synthetic form of the verb `to spend'; the second predicate `continued to mend' is a compound verbal aspect predicate expressed by a phasal verb of duration `continued' and the infinitive of the notional verb `to mend'; the third predicate - `joined' - is a simple verbal predicate expressed by a synthetic form of the notional verb.

In consequence of an agreement between the sisters, Elizabeth wrote the next morning to their mother, to beg that the carriage might be sent for them in the course of the day. [1,p. 1]

The predicate of the principle clause `wrote' is a simple verbal predicate expressed by a past tense synthetic form of the verb `to write', while the predicate of the subordinate clause `might be sent' is a compound verbal modal predicate expressed by a past tense form of the modal verb `may' - `might' - and the passive indefinite infinitive of the notional verb `to send'

Then turning to Mr. Bennet, he offered himself as his antagonist at backgammon. [1,p. 2]

The predicate of the sentence - `offered'- is a simple verbal predicate expressed by a synthetic past tense form of the verb `to offer'.

But the attention of every lady was soon caught by a young man, whom they had never seen before, of most gentlemanlike appearance, walking with another officer on the other side of the way. [1,p. 2]

The predicate in the principle clause `was caught' is a simple verbal predicate expressed by an analytical form of the verb `to catch' -the past simple passive form; as well as the predicate in the subordinate relative clause `had seen' which like the predicate in the principle clause is a simple verbal one, and expressed by an analytical form of the verb.

In another minute, Mr. Bingley, but without seeming to have noticed what passed, took leave and rode on with his friend. [1,p. 2]

There are several predicates in the sentence. The predicate -`passed'- is a simple verbal one expressed by a synthetic form of the verb `to pass'. The predicates `took leave' and `rode on' are homogeneous simple verbal predicates; the former expressed by the past tense form of the verb phrase `to take leave', and the latter one by a synthetic past tense form of the verb `to ride'.

A day or two passed before Jane had courage to speak of her feelings to Elizabeth. [1,p. 2]

The predicate of the principle clause `passed' is a simple verbal predicate expressed by a synthetic past tense form of the verb `to pass', and the predicate in the subordinate clause `had courage' is a simple verbal predicate expressed by a past tense form of the verb phrase `to have courage'.

On the following Monday, Mrs. Bennet had the pleasure of receiving her brother and his wife, who came as usual to spend the Christmas at Longbourn. [1,p.2 ]

In the example above there are two predicates. The first one ` had the pleasure' is a simple verbal predicate expressed by a past tense form of the verb phrase `to have pleasure', and the last one `came' is a simple verbal predicate expressed by a synthetic past tense form of the verb `to come'.

The two young ladies were summoned from the shrubbery, where this conversation passed, by the arrival of the very persons of whom they had been speaking; Mr. Bingley and his sisters came to give their personal invitation for the long-expected ball at Netherfield, which was fixed for the following Tuesday.[1,p. 2]

The example above is a compound-complex sentence, which has more than one subject-predicate units, hence more than one predicate. The predicate of the principle clause `were summoned' is a simple verbal predicate expressed by an analytical past passive form of the verb `to summon'; while the predicate of the clause, subordinated to the previous one `passed' is a simple verbal predicate expressed by a synthetic past tense form of the verb `to pass', and the predicate of the second subordinate clause `had been taking' is also a simple verbal predicate expressed by an analytical past tense form of the verb `to speak' (past perfect continuous form). The predicate in the second coordinating clause `came' is a simple verbal predicate expressed by a synthetic past tense form of the verb `to come', and the predicate of the clause, which is subordinate to the coordinating clause, `was fixed' is a simple verbal predicate expressed by a synthetic past passive form of the verb `to fix'.

She had already learnt that Lady Catherine was still in the country. [1, p.3]

The predicate of the principle sentence `had learnt' is a simple verbal predicate expressed by an analytical form of the verb `to learn' and the simple verbal predicate in the subordinate clause `was' is expressed by a synthetic past tense form of the verb `to be'.

In this quiet way, the first fortnight of her visit soon passed away. [1, p. 3]

The verb phrase `passed away' is a simple verbal predicate expressed by a synthetic past tense form of the verb `to pass' and the preposition `away'.

"My eldest sister has been in town these three months. [1,p.3 ]

The analytical present tense form of the verb `to be' - `has been' - performs the function of the simple verbal predicate in the sentence.

She perfectly remembered everything that had passed in conversation between Wickham and herself, in their first evening at Mr. Phillips's. [1,p. 3]

The predicate in the principle clause `remembered' is a simple verbal one and is expressed by a synthetic past tense form of the verb `to remember', and the predicate of the subordinate clause `had passed' is also a simple verbal predicate expressed by an analytical past tense form of the verb `to pass'.

When a woman has five grown-up daughters, she ought to give over thinking of her own beauty.[1,p.3]

The verb `has' is a simple verbal predicate expressed by a synthetic present tense form of the verb `to have'.

I see no occasion for that.[1, p.3]

The verb `see' is a simple verbal predicate expressed by a synthetic present tense form of the verb `to see'.

But, my dear, you must indeed go and see Mr. Bingley when he comes into the neighbourhood. [1,p.3]

In the example above the verb `comes' performs the function of a simple verbal predicate expressed by a synthetic present tense form of the verb `to come'.

But consider your daughters. [1,p.3]

Like in all the examples presented here, the verb `consider' is a simple verbal predicate expressed by a synthetic present tense form of the verb `to consider'.

I dare say Mr. Bingley will be very glad to see you; and I will send a few lines by you to assure him of my hearty consent to his marrying whichever he chooses of the girls; though I must throw in a good word for my little Lizzy. [1,p.4]

The example above is a compound-complex sentence, thus it has more than two subject-predicate units, hence more than two predicates. The predicate of one of the coordinate clauses `will send' is a simple verbal predicate expressed by an analytical future tense form of the verb `to send'; while the other simple verbal predicate `chooses' is expressed by a synthetic present tense form of the verb `to choose'.

I desire you will do no such thing. [1,p.4]

This is a complex sentence comprising two clauses. The simple verbal predicate of the principle clause `desire' is expressed by a synthetic form of the verb `to desire', and the simple verbal predicate of the subordinate clause `will do' is expressed by an analytical future tense form of the verb `to do'.

But you are always giving HER the preference. [1,p.4]

The analytical present tense form of the verb `to give' performs the function of the simple verbal predicate- `are giving'- in this sentence.

He had always intended to visit him, though to the last always assuring his wife that he should not go; and till the evening after the visit was paid she had no knowledge of it.[1, p.6]

From the structural point of view this is a complex-compound sentence comprising three clause, consequently having four subject-predicate units, hence four predicate, two of which are simple verbal predicates, `was paid' and `had'. The former is expressed by an analytical past tense form of the verb `to pay', while the latter one by a synthetic past tense form of the verb `to have'.

Observing his second daughter employed in trimming a hat, he suddenly addressed her with…. [1, p.6]

The synthetic past tense form of the finite verb `to address' - `addressed' - performs the function of the simple verbal predicate.

Mr. Bingley inherited property to the amount of nearly a hundred thousand pounds from his father, who had intended to purchase an estate, but did not live to do it. [1, p.6]

The verb `inherited' is a simple verbal predicate, expressed by a synthetic present tense form of the verb `to inherit'.

Mr. Darcy, with grave propriety, requested to be allowed the honor of her hand, but in vain. [1, p.6]

The verb `requested' is a simple verbal predicate, expressed by a synthetic present tense form of the verb `to request'.

I hope Mr. Bingley will like it, Lizzy. [1, p.6]

The synthetic present tense form of the verb `to hope'-`hope'-as well as the analytical future tense form of the verb `to like' - `will like'-functions as the simple verbal predicate.

She is a selfish, hypocritical woman, and I have no opinion of her. [1,p.6]

There is only one example of the simple verbal predicate in this sentence, `have', which is expressed by the synthetic present tense form of the verb `to have'.

I do not cough for my own amusement. [1,p.7]

The analytical present tense negative form of the finite verb `to cough', `do not cough', performs the function of the simple verbal predicate.

For you are a young lady of deep reflection, I know, and read great books and make extracts. [1, p.7]

The simple verbal predicates in this complex sentence are `know', `read' and `make'. They all are expressed by synthetic present tense form of the finite verbs `to know', `to read', and `to make'.

Mary wished to say something sensible, but knew not how. [1, p.7]

The synthetic past tense form of the verb `to know'- `knew'- functions as a simple verbal predicate in the sentence.

If I had known as much this morning I certainly would not have called on him. [1, p.8]

The example above is a complex sentence. The finite verbs in both principle and subordinate clauses-`had known' and `would have called on- function as simple verbal predicates expressed by analytical forms of the verb.

It is very unlucky; but as I have actually paid the visit, we cannot escape the acquaintance now. [1, p.8]

Though the sentence is complex and comprises more than one subject-predicate units, only one finite verb functions as a simple verbal predicate - - `have paid visit', expressed by the analytical present tense form of the phrase `to pay the visit'.

The astonishment of the ladies was just what he wished; that of Mrs. Bennet perhaps surpassing the rest; though, when the first tumult of joy was over, she began to declare that it was what she had expected all the while. [1, p.8]

There are only two simple verbal predicates in this example - `wished' and `had expected'; the former is expressed by the synthetic past tense form of the finite verb `to wish'; the latter one is expressed by the analytical past tense form of the finite verb `to expect'.

But I knew I should persuade you at last. [1, p.8]

The synthetic past tense form of the finite verb `to know' - `knew' - performs the function of the simple verbal predicate.

I was sure you loved your girls too well to neglect such an acquaintance.

[1, p.8]

The synthetic past tense form of the finite verb `to love' - `loved' - performs the function of the simple verbal predicate.

I do not know how you will ever make him amends for his kindness; or me, either, for that matter. [1, p.8]

The complex sentence above contains two simple verbal predicates. The first one - `do not know' - is expressed by the analytical present tense form of the verb `to know'; while the second one is expressed by the analytical future tense form of the verb `to make' - `will make'.

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