Word-building in English language

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Ministry of education and science of Ukraine

Ivan Franko national university of Lviv

English department

Word-building in English language

Lviv 2015



Contents

Introduction

Chapter 1. Word formation as a linguistic discipline and subject of its research

1.1 The concept of word formation in linguistics

Chapter 2. Types of word-formation

2.1 Four main types of word-formation

2.2 Minor types of word-formation

Conclusion

References



Introduction

Topicality of the research of word-building system in English language is very high. Understanding of word formation of a foreign language - is one of the most important aspects in its study, because all languages are ??different in their morphological and syntactic structure. In the process of learning of any foreign language ,people will inevitably have to face many errors in speech and writing, because it is very difficult to wean from the stereotypes of word formation of the native language. It is very important to know word-building processes of the language you study and to compare them with processes of your native language.

Thus, as the theme of the course work is very topical and interesting to many linguists, there are many different publications, articles and research on the topic.

A striking examples of it are works of Hadumod Bussmann (1996), `Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics` , Antrushina G.B. `English Lexicology` ,Koonin A. `English Lexicology`. Lots of interesting information regarding word formation in English contain works of Adams, V. `An introduction to Modern English word- formation.` Arnold I. "Modern English Lexicology." , Bauer, L. `English word-formation.

Word-building are processes of producing new words from the resources of this particular language. Together with borrowing, word-building provides for enlarging and enriching the vocabulary of the language.

If viewed structurally, words appear to be divisible into smaller units which are called morphemes. Morphemes do not occur as free forms but only as constituents of words. Yet they possess meanings of their own.

All morphemes are subdivided into two large classes: roots (or radicals) and affixes. The latter, in their turn, fall into prefixes which precede the root in the structure of the word (as in re-read, mis-pronounce, unwell) and suffixes which follow the root (as in teach-er, cur-able, diet-ate).

Words which consist of a root and an affix (or several affixes) are called derived words or derivatives and are produced by the process of word-building known as affixation (or derivation).

Derived words are extremely numerous in the English vocabulary. Successfully competing with this structural type is the so-called root word which has only a root morpheme in its structure.

Another wide-spread word-structure is a compound word consisting of two or more stems. Stem is part of the word consisting of root and affix. Words of this structural type are produced by the word-building process called composition.

Shortenings, contractions or curtailed words a are produced by the way of word-building called shortening (contraction).

The four types (root words, derived words, compounds, shortenings) represent the main structural types of Modern English words, and conversion, derivation and composition the most productive ways of word-building.

Although the topic is sufficiently processed by scientists, but the English language constantly develops and every year is enriched with new words, so there is a need for their research and detailed examination of their word-building pocesses. The topic will be relevant as long as language will exist and develop.

The object of this course work are the means of word-building in English, their functioning and usage for forming new words, and further usage of the newly formed words.

The aim of this course work is investigation of the following questions: what is the word formation , its main and secondary means , their functioning and classification, identifying the most productive ways of formation of new lexical items.

To complete the aim of this work we need to solve the following tasks:

1. define the notion of word formation;

2. determine which means of word formation are in modern English and define their functions;

3. identify the impact of word formation on the development and extension of English vocabulary and to find the most productive means of word formation.

The main task of this course work is to show the word-building and show how important is the word-building in the system of English language .

The theoretical value of the course work is to develop general knowledge in the process of word formation and in the most common means of word formation.

The practical value of this course work is that it can be used in future research on this topic and in lectures and workshops on grammar and lexicology of English .

word formation linguistic



Chapter I: Word formation as a linguistic discipline and subject of its research

1.1 The concept of word formation in linguistics

The most important mean of enriching English vocabulary is the creation of new words, in other words - word-building.

Words in a language are not created randomly from sounds - they are created by certain laws. Therefore it is necessary to have certain means of word formation .[1,6].

The term "word formation" has two basic meanings, which should be clearly distinguished. In the first sense, it is used to express the ongoing process of creating new words in the language. It is in a constant state of development, which consists of separate linguistic processes, including the formation of new words. This process is called "word-building".

In the second sense, the term "word formation" means a branch of science that deals with the study of the formation of new lexical items. Word-formation is that branch of the science of language which studies the patterns on which a language forms new lexical units, i.e. words. Word-formation can only treat of composites which are analyzable both formally and semantically. The study of the simple words, therefore, insofar as it is an , unmotivated sign, has no please in it. It is a lexical matter. A composite rests on a relationship between morphemes though which it is motivated. By this taken, do-er, un-do, rain-bow are relevant to word-formation, but do, rain, bow are not.

The subject of word-formation is the study of the process of formation of new lexical items and the means by which this process occurs (suffixes, prefixes, etc.).

The term “word” should be defined if we speak about word-formation. It is taken to denote the smallest independent, indivisible unit of speech, susceptible of being used in isolation. A word may have a heavy stress, thought, some never take one. To preceding the `infinitive' never has a heavy stress, but it is a word as it can be separated from the verbal stem by an adverb (as in to carefully study). A composite may have two heavy stresses so long as it is not analyzable as a syntactic group. There is a marked tendency in English to give prefixes full stress thought they do not exist as independent words. Indivisible composites such as arch-enemy, crypto-communist, unlucky, therefore are morphological units whereas combination, like stone, wall, gold watch, are syntactic groups. As for the criterion of indivisibility, it is said that the article a is a word as IT can interpolate words between article and substantive (a nice man, a very nice man, an exceptionally gifted man). But a as in aglitter can't be separated from the verb stem with which it forms a group and therefore is not a free morpheme (word). With regard to the criterion of usability, it must not be assumed that all words can be used by themselves, in isolation. It is in the very nature of determiners like the article the to be used in conjunction with the word they determiners.

A detailed, word-by-word ranking is an impossible dream, but a ranking based on classes of words may be within our grasp. Ross Eckler proposes the following classes: (1) words appearing in one more standard English-language dictionaries, (2) non-dictionary words appearing in print in several different contexts, (3) words invented to fill a specific need and appearing but once in print.(2)



Chapter II Types of word-formation

2.1 Four main types of word-formation

a)Affixation

The process of affixation consists in coining a new word by adding an affix or several affixes to some root morpheme.

From the etymological point of view affixes are classified into the same two large groups as words: native and borrowed.

Some Native Suffixes

Noun-forming	-er	worker, miner, teacher, painter, etc.
	-ness	coldness, loneliness, loveliness, etc.
	-ing	feeling, meaning, singing, reading, etc.
	-dom	freedom, wisdom, kingdom, etc.
	-hood	childhood, manhood, motherhood, etc.
	-ship	friendship, companionship, master-ship, etc.
	-th	length, breadth, health, truth, etc.
Adjective-forming	-ful	careful, joyful, wonderful, sinful, skilful, etc.
	-less	careless, sleepless, cloudless, sense-less, etc.
	-y	cozy, tidy, merry, snowy, showy, etc.
	-ish	English, Spanish, reddish, childish, etc.
	-ly	lonely, lovely, ugly, likely, lordly, etc.
	-en	wooden, woollen, silken, golden, etc.
	-some	handsome, quarrelsome, tiresome, etc.
Verb-forming	-en	widen, redden, darken, sadden, etc.
Adverb-forming	-ly	warmly, hardly, simply, carefully, coldly, etc.

Borrowed affixes, especially of Romance origin are numerous in the English vocabulary. An affix of foreign origin can be regarded as borrowed only after it has begun an independent and active life in the recipient language, that is, is taking part in the word-making processes of that language.

Affixes can also be classified into productive and non-productive types. By productive affixes we mean the ones, which take part in deriving new words in this particular period of language development. The best way to identify productive affixes is to look for them among neologisms and so-called nonce-words.One should not confuse the productivity of affixes with their frequency of occurrence. There are quite a number of high-frequency affixes which, nevertheless, are no longer used in word-derivation (e. g. the adjective-forming native suffixes -ful, -ly; the adjective-forming suffixes of Latin origin -ant, -ent, -al which are quite frequent).

Some Productive Affixes

Noun-forming suffixes	-er, -ing, -ness, -ism1 (materialism), -ist1 (impressionist), -ance
Adjective-forming suffixes	-y, -ish, -ed (learned), -able, -less
Adverb-forming suffixes	-ly
Verb-forming suffixes	-ize/-ise (realise), -ate
Prefixes	un- (unhappy), re- (reconstruct), dis- (disappoint)

Some Non-Productive Affixes

Noun-forming suffixes	-th, -hood
Adjective-forming suffixes	-ly, -some, -en, -ous
Verb-forming suffix	-en

Semantics of Affixes

Meanings of affixes are specific and considerably differ from those of root morphemes. Affixes have widely generalised meanings and refer the concept conveyed by the whole word to a certain category, which is vast and all-embracing. So, the noun-forming suffix -er could be roughly defined as designating persons from the object of their occupation or labour (painter -- the one who paints) or from their place of origin or abode (southerner -- the one living in the South). The adjective-forming suffix -ful has the meaning of "full of", "characterised by" (beautiful, careful) whereas -ish may often imply insufficiency of quality (greenish -- green, but not quite; youngish -- not quite young but looking it).

Such examples might lead one to the somewhat hasty conclusion that the meaning of a derived word is always a sum of the meanings of its morphemes: un/eat/able = "not fit to eat" where not stands for un- andfit for -able but the constituent morphemes within derivatives do not always preserve their current meanings and are open to subtle and complicated semantic shifts.

b)Conversion

Conversion is sometimes referred to as an affixless way of word-building or even affixless derivation. Saying that, however, is saying very little because there are other types of word-building in which new words are also formed without affixes (most compounds, contracted words, sound-imitation words, etc.).

Conversion consists in making a new word from some existing word by changing the category of a part of speech, the morphemic shape of the original word remaining unchanged. The new word has a meaning which differs from that of the original one though it can more or less be easily associated with it. It has also a new paradigm peculiar to its new category as a part of speech.

Conversion is both a highly productive and a particularly English way of word-building. Its immense productivity is considerably encouraged by certain features of the English language in its modern stage of development. The analytical structure of Modern English greatly facilitates processes of making words of one category of parts of speech from words of another. So does the simplicity of paradigms of English parts of speech. A great number of one-syllable words is another factor in favour of conversion, for such words are naturally more mobile and flexible than polysyllables.

Conversion is a convenient and "easy" way of enriching the vocabulary with new words. It is certainly an advantage to have two (or more) words where there was one, all of them fixed on the same structural and semantic base.

The two categories of parts of speech especially affected by conversion are nouns and verbs. Verbs made from nouns are the most numerous amongst the words produced by conversion: e. g. to hand, to back, to face, to eye, to mouth, to nose, to dog, to wolf, to monkey, to can, to coal, to stage, to screen, to room, to floor, to blackmail, to blacklist, to honeymoon, and very many others.

Nouns are frequently made from verbs: do (e. g. This is the queerest do I've ever come across. Do -- event, incident), go (e. g. He has still plenty of go at his age. Go -- energy), make, run, find, catch, cut, walk, worry, show, move, etc.

Verbs can also be made from adjectives: to pale, to yellow, to cool, to grey, to rough (e. g. We decided to rough it in the tents as the weather was warm), etc.

Other parts of speech are not entirely unsusceptible to conversion as the following examples show: to down, to out (as in a newspaper heading Diplomatist Outed from Budapest), the ups and downs, the ins and outs, like, n, (as in the like of me and the like of you).

c) Composition

In this type of word-building new words are produced by combining two or more stems. It is one of the three most productive types in Modern English, the other two are conversion and affixation. Compounds, though certainly fewer in quantity than derived or root words, still represent one of the most typical and specific features of English word-structure.

There are at least three aspects of composition that present special interest.

The first is the structural aspect. Compounds are not homogeneous in structure. Traditionally three types are distinguished: neutral, morphological and syntactic.

In neutral compounds the process of compounding is realised without any linking elements, by a mere juxtaposition of two stems, as in blackbird, shop-window, sunflower, bedroom, tallboy, etc. There are three subtypes of neutral compounds depending on the structure of the constituent stems.

The examples above represent the subtype which may be described as simple neutral compounds: they consist of simple affixless stems.

Compounds which have affixes in their structure are called derived or derivational compounds. E. g.absent-mindedness, blue-eyed, golden-haired, broad-shouldered, lady-killer, film-goer, music-lover, honey-mooner, first-nighter, late-comer, newcomer, early-riser, evildoer.

The third subtype of neutral compounds is called contracted compounds. These words have a shortened (contracted) stem in their structure: TV-set (-program, -show, -canal, etc.), V-day (Victory day), G-man (Government man "FBI agent"), H-bag (handbag), T-shirt, etc.

Morphological compounds are few in number. This type is non-productive. It is represented by words in which two compounding stems are combined by a linking vowel or consonant, e. g. Anglo-Saxon, Franko-Prussian, handiwork, handicraft, craftsmanship, spokesman, statesman (see also p. 115).

Syntactic compounds are formed from segments of speech, preserving in their structure numerous traces of syntagmatic relations typical of speech: articles, prepositions, adverbs, as in the nouns lily-of-the-valley, Jack-of-all-trades, good-for-nothing, mother-in-law, sit-at-home. Syntactical relations and grammatical patterns current in present-day English can be clearly traced in the structures of such compound nouns as

pick-me-up, know-all, know-nothing, go-between, get-together, whodunit. The last word (meaning "a detective story") was obviously coined from the ungrammatical variant of the word-group who (has) done it.

In this group of compounds, once more, we find a great number of neologisms, and whodunit is one of them. Consider, also, the two following fragments which make rich use of modern city traffic terms.

Another focus of interest is the semantic aspect of compound words, that is, the question of correlations of the separate meanings of the constituent parts and the actual meaning of the compound. Or, to put it in easier terms: can the meaning of a compound word be regarded as the sum of its constituent meanings?

To try and answer this question, let us consider the following groups of examples.

(1) Classroom, bedroom, working-man, evening-gown, dining-room, sleeping-car, reading-room, dancing-hall.

This group seems to represent compounds whose meanings can really be described as the sum of their constituent meanings. Yet, in the last four words we can distinctly detect a slight shift of meaning. The first component in these words, if taken as a free form, denotes an action or state of whatever or whoever is characterised by the word. Yet, a sleeping-car is not a car that sleeps (cf. a sleeping child), nor is a dancing-hall actually dancing (cf. dancing pairs).

The shift of meaning becomes much more pronounced in the second group of examples.

(2) Blackboard, blackbird, football, lady-killer, pick pocket, good-for-nothing, lazybones, chatterbox.

In these compounds one of the components (or both) has changed its meaning: a blackboard is neither a board nor necessarily black, football is not a ball but a game, a chatterbox not a box but a person, and a lady-killer kills no one but is merely a man who fascinates women. It is clear that in all these compounds the meaning of the whole word cannot be defined as the sum of the constituent meanings. The process of change of meaning in some such words has gone so far that the meaning of one or both constituents is no longer in the least associated with the current meaning of the corresponding free form.

The compounds whose meanings do not correspond to the separate meanings of their constituent parts are called idiomatic compounds, in contrast to the first group known as non-idiomatic compounds.

A further theoretical aspect of composition is the criteria for distinguishing between a compound and a word-combination.

This question has a direct bearing on the specific feature of the structure of most English compounds which has already been mentioned: with the exception

of the rare morphological type, they originate directly from word-combinations and are often homonymous to them: cf. a tall boy -- a tallboy.

In this case the graphic criterion of distinguishing between a word and a word-group seems to be sufficiently convincing, yet in many cases it cannot wholly be relied on. The spelling of many compounds,tallboy among them, can be varied even within the same book. In the case of tallboy the semantic criterion seems more reliable, for the striking difference in the meanings of the word and the word-group certainly points to the highest degree of semantic cohesion in the word: tallboy does not even denote a person, but a piece of furniture, a chest of drawers supported by a low stand.

Moreover, the word-group a tall boy conveys two concepts (1. a young male person; 2. big in size), whereas the word tallboy expresses one concept.

Yet the semantic criterion alone cannot prove anything as phraseological units also convey a single concept and some of them are characterised by a high degree of semantic cohesion (see Ch. 12).

The phonetic criterion for compounds may be treated as that of a single stress. The criterion is convincingly applicable to many compound nouns, yet does not work with compound adjectives:

cf. 'slowcoach, blackbird, 'tallboy,

but: blие-'eyed, 'absent-'minded, 'ill-'mannered.

Still, it is true that the morphological structure of these adjectives and their hyphenated spelling leave no doubt about their status as words and not word-groups.

Morphological and syntactic criteria can also be applied to compound words in order to distinguish them from word-groups.

In the word-group a tall boy each of the constituents is independently open to grammatical changes peculiar to its own category as a part of speech: They were the tallest boys in their form.

Between the constituent parts of the word-group other words can be inserted: a tall handsome boy.

The compound tallboy -- and, in actual fact, any other compound -- is not subject to such changes. The first component is grammatically invariable; the plural form ending is added to the whole unit: tallboys. No word can be inserted between the components, even with the compounds which have a traditional separate graphic form.

All this leads us to the conclusion that, in most cases, only several criteria (semantic, morphological, syntactic, phonetic, graphic) can convincingly classify a lexical unit as either a compound word or a wordgroup.

d) Shortening (Contraction)

This comparatively new way of word-building has achieved a high degree of productivity nowadays, especially in American English.

Shortenings (or contracted/curtailed words) are produced in two different ways. The first is to make a new word from a syllable (rarer, two) of the original word. The latter may lose its beginning (as in phonemade from telephone, fence from defence), its ending (as in hols from holidays, vac from vacation, propsfrom properties, ad from advertisement) or both the beginning and ending (as in flu from influenza, fridgefrom refrigerator).

The second way of shortening is to make a new word from the initial letters of a word group: U.N.O.['ju:neu] from the United Nations Organisation, B.B.C. from the British Broadcasting Corporation, M.P. fromMember of Parliament. This type is called initial shortenings. They are found not only among formal words, such as the ones above, but also among colloquialisms and slang. So, g. f. is a shortened word made from the compound girl-friend.

2.2 Minor types of word-formation

a) Reduplication / Echoism We can count reduplication, also referred to as echoism, as a special kind of compunding, and this works through repeating a syllable or the word as whole (sometimes a vowel is changed) and then putting it together, as in bye-bye (exact reduplication), super-duper (rhyming reduplication), or chitchat (ablaut reduplication). While exact reduplication creates a kind of baby-talk-like word, ablaut reduplication is more to denote a 'motion', e.g. from ding to dong (in ding-dong). ''Almost all of these use the vowel 'i' in the first part of the reduplication and either 'a' or 'o' in the second part''.In other words reduplication is the formation of a new word by doubling a word, either with change of initial consonants (teenie-weenie, walkie-talkie), with change of vowel (chit-chat, zig-zag) or without change (night-night, so-so and win-win). Reduplication is used to denote plurality, intensification or a repeated action. An interesting fraction of reduplication is the shm-reduplication, where shm- (or sometimes schm-), originating from the Yiddish, is added to the beginning of the target word, e.g. ''Oedipus, Schmoedipus'' (Peters 2010). Shm-reduplication is used to indicate mockery or irony and is also used as a diminisher.

b) Blending is a combination of two or more words to create a new one, usually by taking the beginning of the other word and the end of the other one. So new words like spork (spoon + fork), fanzine (fan + magazine), bromance (brother + romance) or Spanglish (Spanish + English) are created. There are of course other ways to create a blending: for example, you can take both beginnings of a word (cybernetic + organism > cyborg) or take a whole word and combine it with a part of another one (guess + estimate > guesstimate). (Yousefi 2009) Another example of combining words, in this case names, is the bleding of celebrity couple names, such as Brangelina (Brad + Angelina) or Bennifer (Ben + Jennifer). Sometimes blendings are referred to as portmanteau words. The term portmanteau was coined by Lewis Carroll in 1882, when in his book Through the Looking Glass Humpty Dumpty describes a new word he uses as follows: "Well, 'slithy' means 'lithe and slimy'. […] You see, it's like a portmanteau - there are two meanings packed into one word" (Carroll 1996, 102 - i.e. there are two different words with completely unequal meanings put together to form a new word with a new meaning.

c) Initialism & Acronymy are shortenings, build from the initial letters in a phrase or name. While - 5 - acronyms are pronounced as single words (NASA, AIDS), initialisms are pronounced ''as a sequence of letters'' (DNA, USA). (Finegan 2007, 48) Some acronyms even become words of our everyday language, such as laser or zip code. But the most famous word based on a shortening is the initialism OK, whose origins are fairly argumentative. Initialisms and acronyms can be sub-divided into a few groups: * Acronyms containing non-initial letters (Interpol - International Criminal Police Organization, radar - radio detection and ranging) * Pronounced as a combination of initialism and acronym (CD-ROM, JPEG) * Recursive initialisms, in which the abbreviation refers to itself (PHP - PHP hypertext preprocessor) * Pseudo-initialisms, which consist of a sequence of characters that, when pronounced as intended, invoke other, longer words (IOU - I owe you, CU - See you). This kind of initialism is frequently seen on the internet. * Initialisms whose last abbreviated word is often redundantly included anyway (PIN number) (Acronym and Initialism) 2.5 Borrowing & Calque Borrowing is the process of actually borrowing words from foreign languages. The English language has been borrowing words from ''nearly a hundred languages in the last hundred years'' (Finegan 2007, 51), and today, French loan words are especially popular. The other way round, many countries also have taken many English words into their dictionaries, such as the well-known OK or internet. While most of the loan words are nouns, only some of them are verbs or adjectives. Mostly, the borrowed nouns are later changed or ''made conform'' (Finegan 2007, 52) to fit the verbal forms of the language, in speech and in writing. For example, risk, originating in Italia, was actually a noun when borrowed, but later, in need of a verb, it was converted: to risk. Calque, another term for loan translation, describes the process of literally or word-for-word translations to create new words, e.g. skyscraper > Wolkenkratzer, Lehnwort > loan word. The stems are literally translated and then put back together, the meaning is the same as in the loan word.

d) Neologism/Coinage As neologism or coinage we identify the word formation process of inventing entirely new words. This is a very rare and uncommon method to create new words, but in the media, people try to outdo each other with more and better words to name their products. Often these trademark names are adopted by the masses and they become ''everyday words of language'' (Yule 2006, 53). And in some cases, the meaning of these words is broadened and e.g. to 'google' means not always 'to use google to find something on the internet', but to 'search the internet'. Similarly, complicated chemical or technical terms (like Aspirin: acetylsalicylic acid) are adopted as the trademark term and often replace standard terms for e.g. in this example, painkillers. This also happened to words like Xerox, Kleenex or the German Nutella. Some words are differentiated from 'standard' neologisms, namely eponyms. Eponyms are words that are ''based on the name of a person or a place'' (Yule 2006, 53). Common eponyms are - 6 - sandwich or fahrenheit. ''They are very frequently used in science where units of measurement are named after people, like: hertz, volt, celsius'' (Wisniewski 2007).

e) Onomatopoeia This special type of word that depicts ''the sound associated with what is named'' (Examples of Onomatopoeia). For example, if you take a look at these words: boo, chirp, click, meow, splash, it is obvious what these words mean, namely the sound. In other words: they look like they sound when pronounced. Onomatopoeic words like bang or boom are often used in comic books to let the reader know what kind of sound is accompanied to the action.

f) Backformation is the process of shortening a long word by cutting off an affix to form a new word. The new word has a different part of speech from the original word.

Examples:

televise < television

donate < donation

babysit < babysitter

backform < backformation



Conclusion

The aim of our course work was to define what is the word formation , its main and secondary means , their functioning and classification, identifying the most productive ways of formation of new lexical items.

Word-building are processes of producing new words from the resources of this particular language. Together with borrowing, word-building provides for enlarging and enriching the vocabulary of the language.

The most productive ways of word-building are affixation , conversion , composition and shortening.

The process of affixation consists in coining a new word by adding an affix or several affixes to some root morpheme.

Conversion refers to the process of changing or converting the class of a word without changing its form. The word email, for instance, can be used as a verb in Modern English though it was only a noun in the past.

Composition . In this type of word-building new words are produced by combining two or more stems.

Shortenings (or contracted/curtailed words) are produced in two different ways. The first is to make a new word from a syllable (rarer, two) of the original word. The latter may lose its beginning (as in phonemade from telephone, fence from defence), its ending (as in hols from holidays, vac from vacation, propsfrom properties, ad from advertisement) or both the beginning and ending (as in flu from influenza, fridgefrom refrigerator).

The second way of shortening is to make a new word from the initial letters of a word group: U.N.O.['ju:neu] from the United Nations Organisation, B.B.C. from the British Broadcasting Corporation, M.P. fromMember of Parliament.

It is impossible to overestimate the importance of word-formation in the English language. Knowing the rules of word-building and understanding the meanings of affixes simplify the process of learning English and enrich students' vocabulary. Word-formation is a part in the section” Use of English” in Single State Exam in English, so teachers should pay a lot of attention to it and spend some time drilling students on this aspect.



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