Slang

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Content

Introduction

1. The theoretical part

1.1 The origin and history of slang

1.2 The problem of definition of the term “slang”

1.3 Classification and functions of slang

1.3 Stylistic features of slang

2. The practical part

Conclusion

List of literature



Introduction

slang word language context

Slang is more or less common almost in all categories of society and in every sphere of life at the present day. Slang words and expressions have been included into our everyday language so imperceptibly that the majority of speakers cannot recognize their and therefore such words have became an integral part of their vocabulary. Now slang is used to express thoughts and desires and convey meaning from one to another. In fact, in some cases, slang has become so useful that it would be very hard in some cases to get along without it. In addition, slang words have replaced the regular words of language in very many instances.

Slang, being an integral part of language and speech, is one of the main and most problematic aspects of lexicology. The concept of slang has been inaccurately defined by many lexicographers who tend to restrict it to informal or bad language, and the term `slang' has been improperly used by many sociolinguists who conflated it with such language varieties as cant, jargon, dialect, vernacular or accent.

In my report, I try to explore slang in general and its usage in the fiction, exactly in the work “The Catcher in the Rye” by J.D. Salinger. My research work consists interpretations of slang words, its using in the modern speech and its new context.



1. The theoretical part

1.1 The origin and history of slang.

The etymology of the term "slang" is one of the most controversial and confusing issues in English lexicology. Most linguists and lexicographers admit that the origin of the word slang is “uncertain” or “unknown”.

However, until the 19th century there was a Gypsy etymology of the term «slang». So in the famous dictionary Joanna there are synonyms of slang, as “g³bber³sh” - Gypsy lingo, “flash language” - low vulgar language.But in the end of 19^th century one notable exception is Skeat, a lexicographer, who claims that slang (“vulgar language”) is of Scandinavian origin and a derivation of Icelandic slyngva (“to sling”), which can be compared with the Norwegian verb slengja (“to sling the jaw”) and the Norwegian noun slengjeord (“slang word”), used for insulting words.

Italian researcher Winona Bullard writes that different dialects and pronunciations in the Middle Ages represented the first meaning of the term “slang”. It was represented by certain writers such as Chauser, William Caxton and William of Malmesbury. The present-day meaning for slang began to form only in 16th or 17th century. English Criminal Cant is considered to be the starting point of slang. It was a new kind of speech used by criminals in saloons and gambling houses. It was at first believed that English criminal cant originated in Romania or had occurred in France.

It is unknown when the word is slang first appeared in England in the speech. In writing it is first noted in England in the 18th century. Then it meant "insult". In approximately 1850, this term came to be used more widely as a symbol of "illegal" vernacular language. During this period schoolmasters taught pupils to believe that the English Criminal Cant (which by this time had developed into slang) was not the correct usage of English and slang was considered to be taboo.

However, slang was beginning to be presented in popular plays. The first appearance of the slang was in a play by Richard Brome's and later appeared in poems and songs by Copland. By the 1700's the cultural differences in America had begun to influence the English-speaking population, and slang began to expand.

In the 20th century the question of the origin of the slang term continues to interest researchers. There are new hypotheses. Most reliable is Partridge`s hypothesis, who believes that the slang word relates to the verb “to sl³ng - to utter”, indicating the existence of such phrases as “sl³ng words” since the days of Chaucer and late slang compounds with the same verb.

Slang became popular with fiction writers and society at large. The development of English slang was assisted by a number of events, such as the American Civil War and the abolitionist movement.

By this time scholars such as Walt Whitman, W. D. Whitney, and Brander Matthews all considered slang to be anything that sounded new, and that was not in the “glossaries of British dialects”.

This was a turning point for slang it was starting to escape the criticism of being associated with criminals or foreigners. It was not until the early 1920's that slang had gained the interest of popular writers. It was during the post-World War I era that society gained new attitudes about slang.

The slang of each historical period reflected the characteristics of that time. Slang of the 60s was the result of increased interest in drugs, popular music, constant euphoria.

Slang 70s contained a large number of epithets that concerned the losers. In the slang of the 80s was dominated by words that dealt with money and work.



1.2 The problem of definition of the term “slang”

A single and comprehensive definition of the slang is not to this day.

Currently there are rather large number of definitions of slang, often are contradictory. These contradictions relate mostly to the scope of the concept of "slang": the debate is, in particular, whether to include in the slang only expressive, ironic words that are synonyms literary equivalent or also all non-standard vocabulary, the use of which is deprecated in the circle of educated people

In Oxford dictionary presents the following definition of slang is “a type of language consisting of words and phrases that are regarded as very informal, are more common in speech than writing, and are typically restricted to a particular context or group of people”.

As we know, slang is considered by the researchers belonging to different linguistic schools. Some authors studied slang as a deliberate, conscious use of vocabulary elements in a purely stylistic purposes, in particular to create the effect of novelty, to emphasize. This is achieved by the use of such stylistic means, as a metaphor, litotes, onomatopoeia, and others.

This view was shared by Dzh. Gotten, which defined slang as "the language of street humor, of fast, high and low life; Fowler called the slang,the diction that results from playing with words and renaming things"; also. B. Antrushina writes that slang is “a kind of metaphor, lexical-semantic units, full metonymic and humorous sense ("all slang is metaphor")”. Alexander also emphasizes such characteristics as humor in slang and defines one is “ unorthodox, informal use of language, generally with a humorous or would-be-humorous intention”. This indicates Frieze: “flippant humor, marks the expressions we call slang". Y. M. Skrebnev also emphasizes the humor of slang lexical layer: "Slang is a set of commonly understood and common words and expressions of humorous nature is consciously used as substitutes of conventional literary words".

J. X. McKnight says that slang is "a colloquial form of speech created in a spirit of defiance and aiming at freshness and novelty"; C. Potter gives the following definition: "slang - a variety of familiar and colloquial speech, often new, picturesque, and striking, but not yet fully recognized and accepted by the community as a permanent part of the common language". As we can see, in the last definitions, all the authors attributed the phenomenon of slang to the field of spoken language, attributing speech and the phenomenon is quite bright and often the positive characteristics.

Most of the scientists mean by the term "slang" is not the style, and the lexical layer or stratum.

So, for example, I. V. Arnold pointed out that the slang called “a purely spoken words with a gruff or comic-emotion”. More detailed definitions we find in the works of T. A. Solovieva. She believes that is not a clear definition of slang, therefore, offers a new interpretation of the term "slang is the most active layer in speaking the English language, including words and phrases or borrowed from other groups of English or from other languages or created by derivational models that exist in English, and used in a more specific values acquired through the emotional coloring"

Also slang is often seen as a "psychological aspect". From this point slang is the product of individual linguistic creativity of the representatives of various social and professional groups, serving as the linguistic expression of social consciousness of the people belonging to a given environment. So S. Robertson claims that "slang consists of `special' words, invented by certain people and unclear to all members of society”. Such views of the slang also adhere to J. Hotten, Hertzler and Randal.

Moreover slang is often regarded as the antithesis of so-called literary language and is identified in part with the jargon and partly with spoken language. While some authors strongly reject the slang "vulgar, thieves' language, while others consider it a sign of life and progressive development of language, a sign of eternal change Its system, mainly lexical.

So In different dictionaries the line "slang" the following categories of words and word combinations are words referring to the thieves ' jargon, and words related to other jargons.

In addition, some researchers in fact deny the existence of slang subsuming existing slang words to different lexical and stylistic categories.

Thus after examining the many definitions of slang I adhere Solovieva`s opinion and the definition, which is given in the Oxford dictionary.

1.3 Classification and functions of slang.

Arnold I.V. classifies slang into general and special, according to the sphere of usage.

General slang includes words are not specific for any social or professional group while special slang is specific for some group such as teenager slang, university slang, public school slang, Air force slang, football slang, sea slang, and so on.

On the other hand, general slang is defined by Khomyakov V. A. as “relatively stable for a certain period, a widespread and commonly understood layer of the vocabulary and phraseology in the environment of a living spoken language (sometimes with phonetic, morphological and syntactic features), it is highly heterogeneous in its genetic composition and the degree of approach to literary language, with a strong emotionally-expressive evaluative in nature, often representing protest-mockery against social, ethical, aesthetic, linguistic and other conventions and authorities".

Functions of slang:

1. Slang makes the language more concise, emotionally expressive.

2. Slang defines the belonging to a particular social group.

3. Communicative function.

4. Evaluation function. ( The attitude of the speaker to objects and phenomena of reality, and to the people around him. Evaluative expressions are divided into general positive and general negative).

5. Manipulative function. It manifests itself in such incentive proposals that have the value of expression addressed to the interlocutor, and used with the purpose to influence him, to induce any action.

6. "Creative" function. It manifests itself in those cases when people have a need to express something that there is no suitable equivalent in the literary language.

1.4 Stylistic features of slang

In modern foreign lexicography the term "slang" is mixed with such concepts as "dialecticisms", "jargon" and "slang word", "speech", "speech", etc. Between these concepts, there are no clear faces, so it leads to difficulties.
The concept of "slang" in English lexicography is mixed with words and idioms that are quite dissimilar from the point of view of their stylistic color and use.

So there are following categories of words and phrases with a mark “slang” in different dictionaries, according to Galperin I.R.:

1. Words are related to thieves jargon.

2. Words are related to other jargon. As a variety of jargon is included in the slang, it leads to its division.

3. Many colloquial expressions and words -- neologisms inherent only in living informal communication.

The distinction between literary colloquial words and some words related to "slang", so difficult to determine that the authoritative English and American dictionaries appear double stylistic marks:(colloquial.) or (slang).

4. Casual formations, which resulted from literary associations and its value which caused by their semantic communications with original concept.

5. Figurative words and expressions. We should distinguish between industry words and common figurative words.

6. Words are formed as a result of the use of one of the most productive ways of word formation in modern English -- conversion.

7. In some dictionaries abbreviations are also considered as "slang".

8. "Slang" is added even colloquial phonetic, morphological and syntactic form.

It remains completely unclear why the authors of dictionaries include these or those words to the category of "slang". The difference between "slang" and dialecticisms is often not given too.

The inaccuracy in the reference of a word to a particular stylistic category of words -- it is a natural phenomenon, because language is constantly develop, and words from one sphere of communication inevitably fall into another sphere of communication and begin its existence as an independent and full-fledged members or have double stylistic mark. So many words and phrases, which began its existence as "slang", now firmly established in the English literary language.



2. The practical part

In my research, I used the work “The Catcher in the Rye” by J.D. Salinger. This story was written in 1951, therefore I tried to find the meaning of slang words, as in 1951. Then I explored the interpretation of these words in our time, in case there are used in speech now.

For my practical work, I used a special online glossary “The Catcher in the Rye”, the Oxford Dictionary and the Oxford Dictionary of Slang.

The list of slang words and their meaning:

1) Ass: to give someone a pain in the ass= to annoy someone ( the meaning, as 1951 according to a special online glossary “The Catcher in the Rye” ). Example in the story: “He doesn't know his ass from his elbow”( page 27) = He doesn't know a thing.

This word is still very current in speech. And also now “ass” is boorish and stupid person. (Oxford dictionary of slang).

In addition, the word “ass” has double stylistic marks (slang) and (colloq.)

2) Bang:get a bang from doing something = enjoy doing something (the meaning, as 1951 according to a special online glossary “The Catcher in the Rye”). Example in the story: “You could tell old Spencer`d got a big bang out of buying it” (page 23).

This word is still current in speech, but has another meaning. According to Oxford dictionary of slang “band” is an excitation; an injection of the drug. In Australian slang, “band” is coitus.

3) Buddy(roo) = friend (the meaning, as 195; a special online glossary “The Catcher in the Rye”). Example in the story: “ Be a buddy. Be a buddyroo” (page 83).

This word is still common and belongs to colloquial words and slang words. According to Oxford dictionary of slang “buddy” has the same meaning as in 1951.

4). chew the fat = to chat (the meaning, as 195; a special online glossary “The Catcher in the Rye”). Example in the story: “ But we chewed the fat for a while” (page 304).

This word is still quite current and has the same meaning. Moreover the phrase “ chew the fat” belongs to Australian slang and has double stylistic marks (slang) and (colloq.) Also this word is used in the common vocabulary.

5). Corny = old, dull (the meaning, as 195; a special online glossary “The Catcher in the Rye”). Example in the story: “ He started off with about fifty corny jokes, just to show us what a regular guy he was” (page 51).

This word has the same meaning now, as in 1951.

6) crazy about = enthusiastic about (the meaning, as 195; a special online glossary “The Catcher in the Rye”). Example in the story: “ I`m not too crazy about sick people, anyway” (page 24).

This word is still very current and has the same meaning now, as in 1951.

7). Crap = senseless, stupid talk. (the meaning, as 195; a special online glossary “The Catcher in the Rye”). Example in the story: “ I had to sit there and listen to that crap” (page 36).

“Crap” is still very common. But now this word has more rude meaning and has mark (taboo). “Crap” is rubbish, useless thing, shit (Oxford dictionary of slang).

8). Crumby = lousy (the meaning, as 195; a special online glossary “The Catcher in the Rye”). Example in the story: “ I don`t feel like walking on your crumby nails in my bare feet tonight” (page 70).

The word is still fairly current and has the same meaning, as 1951. But often “crumbly” is replaced by another slang word “crummy”. "crummy" or "crummie" means inferior (crummy product) or unsatisfactory (crummy attitude). (Oxford dictionary of slang)

According to Oxford dictionary of slang “crumbly” is used when in a situation that is not favorable.

9). Dizzy = senseless, funny (the meaning, as 1951; a special online glossary “The Catcher in the Rye”). Example in the story: “Sort of dizzy” (page 512).

Now this word is used but has another meaning. Dizzy = mad/crazy (Oxford dictionary of slang).

10). Dopey = a stupid person (the meaning, as 1951; a special online glossary “The Catcher in the Rye”). Example in the story: “ God, could that dopey girl dance” (page 205).

This word is still common but has another meaning. According to Oxford dictionary of slang “dopey” is stupid as if under the influence of drugs. “Dopey” has double stylistic marks (colluq.), (slang) and also (taboo).

11). Dough = money (the meaning, as 1951; a special online glossary “The Catcher in the Rye”). Example in the story: “ He`s got a lot of dough, now” (page 8).

The word is still current and has the same meaning, as in 1951. “Dough” has double stylistic marks (colluq.), (slang) and (jargon). Also this word is used in general vocabulary.

12). Faggy = stupid (the meaning, as 1951; a special online glossary “The Catcher in the Rye”). Example in the story: “ and scrawny and faggy on the Saxon Hall side.,” (page 11)

This word is still common, but has another meaning. Now “faggy” is homosexual (Oxford dictionary of slang).

13). Fart = to have flatulence (the meaning, as 1951; a special online glossary “The Catcher in the Rye”). Example in the story: “ Edgar Marslla, laid this terrific fart” (page 52).

The word is still current and has the same meaning, as in 1951. “Fart” has double stylistic marks (colluq.), (slang) and (taboo). Also this word is used in general vocabulary but in more polite form.

14). Flitty = homosexual (the meaning, as 1951; a special online glossary “The Catcher in the Rye”). Example in the story: “ They weren`t too flitty - looking - I mean they didn`t have their hair too long.,” (page 402).

This one is not current in speech now. In Oxford dictionary this word has the mark (taboo).

15). get to the first base = to make progress (in a relationship). (the meaning, as 1951; a special online glossary “The Catcher in the Rye”). Example in the story: “ I knew she wouldn`t let him get to first base with her.,” (page 230).

The word is still common and has the same meaning, as in 1951. “Get to the first base” has the mark (American slang).

16). get wise = making fun (the meaning, as 1951; a special online glossary “The Catcher in the Rye”). Example in the story: “ Mr. Cudahy - had ever tried to get wise with her.,” (page 227)

This one is still current, but has another meaning. According to Oxford dictionary of slang “get wise” is to be impudent, be saucy. In Australian slang “get wise” means look at the facts or reality.

17). give time = to give time to someone= to have sexual intercourse with someone (the meaning, as 1951; a special online glossary “The Catcher in the Rye”). Example in the story: “I was personally acquainted with at least two girls he gave the time to” (page 142)

This phrase is not current now.

18). guts: to have guts to do something= to have the courage to do something (the meaning, as 1951; a special online glossary “The Catcher in the Rye”). Example in the story: “ Only, I wouldn`t have the guts to do it.” (page 255).

The word is still extremely current and has the same meaning, as in 1951. In addition, the word “guts” has double stylistic marks (slang) and (colloq.)

19). Hot -shot = an important person (the meaning, as 1951; a special online glossary “The Catcher in the Rye”). Example in the story: “ you could tell the two hot-shots.,” (page 575).

This one is still current and has the same meaning, as in 1951. Moreover “hot-shot” is used in general vocabulary.

20). Slob = a distasteful person (the meaning, as 1951; a special online glossary “The Catcher in the Rye”). Example in the story: “ She probably knew what a phony slob he was” (page 13).

The word is still extremely common and has the same meaning, as in 1951. The Oxford dictionary gives the following definition of “slob”. Slob is a person who is lazy and has low standards of cleanliness.

21). Yellow = a coward (the meaning, as 1951; a special online glossary “The Catcher in the Rye”). Example in the story: “ I`m one of these very yellow guys” (page 254).

This word is still current in such meaning. “Yellow” is not brave; cowardly. (Oxford dictionary). But this slang word has another meaning now. In American slang “yellow” is black woman with light skin. ( Oxford dictionary of slang).



Conclusion

This work is devoted to the study of such concepts as slang, its features and its use in fiction, namely in the novel “the catcher in the rye” by J.D. Salinger. During my research, I am convinced that no clear border between slang, colloquial expressions and other non-literary groups of words.

Most slang words in my work have double stylistic marks therefore such words cannot be clearly assigned to one of the groups. Also during research it become clear, that some slang words and expressions that existed in the 50-ies, now are either not used or have different meanings and are used in a different context. From this we can conclude that the base of the slang is increased and updated from year to year and that the slang, being an inseparable part of the language, develops and evolves along with it.

Therefore, the slang will be an actual problem of lexicology as long as there is a language.



List of literature

· Ãàëüïåðèí È.Ð. Î òåðìèíå ñëåíã//Âîïðîñû ÿçûêîçíàíèÿ, ¹6, 1956. 115 C.

· Õîìÿêîâ Â.À. Ââåäåíèå â èçó÷åíèå ñëåíãà - îñíîâíîãî êîìïîíåíòà àíãëèéñêîãî ïðîñòîðå÷èÿ. Âîëîãäà: Ìèíèñòåðñòâî ïðîñâåùåíèÿ ÎÑÔÑÐ Âîëîãîäñêîãî ãîñ. ïåä. èí-òà, 1971. 381ñ.

· Àðíîëüä È.Â. Ëåêñèêîëîãèÿ ñîâðåìåííîãî àíãëèéñêîãî ÿçûêà. Ì.: Âûñøàÿ øêîëà, 1959. 318 ñ.

· Ñìèðíèöêèé À.È. Ëåêñèêîëîãèÿ àíãëèéñêîãî ÿçûêà. Ì.: Âûñøàÿ øêîëà, 1956. 316 ñ.

· Àíòðóøèíà Ã.Á., Àôàíàñüåâà Î.Â., Ìîðîçîâà Í.Í. Ëåêñèêîëîãèÿ àíãëèéñêîãî ÿçûêà. Ì.: Äðîôà, 208 C.

· Salinger J. D. “The Catcher in the Rye” (electronic copy), 1951. 603 Ñ.

· The Catcher in the Rye Glossary. Ðåæèì äîñòóïà -http://www.gradesaver.com/the-catcher-in-the-rye/study-guide/glossary-of-terms

· Oxford University Press, USA.2000. 480 C.

· Slang. D.W.Maurer. Ðåæèì äîñòóïà. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/548055/slang.

· Oxford dictionaries. Ðåæèì äîñòóïà. http://www.oxforddictionaries.com.

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