Borrowing in English

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Content

Introduction

1. Borrowed words and their peculiarities

1.1 Etymological survey of the word-stock of a language

1.2 Borrowed words, kinds of borrowed words

2. Assimilation of borrowed words

2.1 Different aspects of assimilation of borrowed words

2.2 International words as loan words

3. Foreign language influences in English

3.2 French borrowings in the Modern English language

3.3 Russian Borrowings in Modern English

3.4 Turkic borrowings in Modern English

3.5 Borrowings in contemporary literature

Conclusion

The list of used literature

Appendix A. Foreign terms used in English

Appendix B. The list of pseudo-French words

Appendix C. The percentage of modern English words derived from each language group

Introduction

External means of developing English vocabulary can be understood as borrowings from other languages. Borrowing as means of replenishing the vocabulary is of much greater importance and is comparatively active only in the field of scientific terminology and social-political terminology as many terms are often made up of borrowed morphemes, mostly morphemes from classical languages.

The part played by borrowings in the vocabulary of a language depends upon the history of each given language, being conditioned by direct linguistic contacts and political, economic and cultural relationships between nations. It is the vocabulary system of each language that is particularly responsive to every change in the life of the speaking community.

The first point to be emphasized is that here we are not dealing with completely new ideas introduced from a different type of civilization and culture, but rather the imposing by a dominant race of their own terms for ideas which were already familiar to the subject race. Such a state of affairs obviously means that there will arise pairs of words the native and the foreign term for the same idea and a struggle for survival between the two, so that one of the words was eventually lost from the language, or survived only with some differentiation of meaning.

Borrowed words have been called «The milestones of philology» - said O. Jesperson - because they permit us (show us) to fix appreciatively the dates of linguistic changes. They show us the course of civilization and give us information of the nations». Borrowed words enter the language as a result of influence of two main causes of factors; linguistic and extra-linguistic.

Borrowed words have been considered in many scientific works, monographs and publications. The main constituent part of the vocabulary system of any language is formed by borrowed words.

The object of this work is borrowings in English language. The subject is the main ways of borrowings in modern English language.

The goal of term paper is to analyze the process of borrowings. And the objectives are as follows- to present the examples of borrowings in English language and to find out common ways of borrowings. We tried to analyze authentic text on borrowings in order to give general presentation of borrowed words in English.

1. Borrowed words and their peculiarities

1.1 Etymological survey of the word-stock of a language

Etymologically the vocabulary of any language consists of two groups - the native words and the borrowed words. E.g., in its 15 century long history recorded in written manuscripts the English language happened to come in long and close contact with several other languages, mainly Latin, French and Old Norse (or Scandinavian). The etymological linguistic analysis showed that the borrowed stock of words is lager than the native stock of words. Uzbek language, as well as English has been in long and close touch with other languages, mainly Arabic, Persian, Russian. A native word is a word which belongs to the original stock. An English native word is a word which belongs to Anglo-Saxon origin. To the native words we include words from Common Germanic language and from Indo-European stock.

A borrowed word, a loan word or borrowing is a word taken over from another language and modified in phonemic shape, spelling, paradigm or meaning according to the standards of the language.

Words belonging to the subsets of the native word - stock are for the most part characterized by a wide range of lexical and grammatical valency, high frequency value and a developed polysemy; they are often monosyllabic, show great word - building power and enter a number of set expressions, e. g., watch DE Weccan is one of the 500 most frequent English words. It may be used as a verb in more than ten different sentence patterns, with or without object and adverbial modifiers and combined with different classes of words.

1.2 Borrowed words, kinds of borrowed words

Borrowed words are words taken over from other languages. Many linguists consider foreign influence plays the most important role in the history of any language.

But the grammar and phonetic system are very stable and are not often influenced by other languages.

For example, in its 15 century long history recorded in written manuscripts the English language happened to come in long and close contact with several other languages mainly Latin, French and Old Norse. The great influx of borrowings from these sources can be accounted for by a number of historical causes. Due to the great influence of the Roman civilization Latin was for a long time used in England as the language of learning and religion. Old Norse was the language of the conquerors who were on the same level of social and cultural development and who nudged rather easily with the local population in the 9^th, 10^th and the first half of the 11^th century. French (Norman dialect) was the language of the other conquerors. Who brought with them a lot of new nations of a higher social system developed feudalism it was the language of upper classes, of official documents and school instruction from the middle of the 11^th century to the end of the 14^th century.

Borrowings of later periods became the object of investigation only in resent years. These investigations have shown that the flow of borrowings has been steady and uninterrupted. They refer to various fields of social - political, scientific and cultural life. A large portion of them (41%) is scientific and technical terms.

When we speak about the role of native and borrowed words in the language we must not take into consideration only the number of them but their semantic, stylistic character, their word building ability, frequency value, collocability (valency) and the productivity of their word-building patterns.

If we approach to the study of the role of native and borrowed words from this point of view we see, though the native words are not numerous they play an important role in the English language. They have value, great word - forming power, wide collocability high frequency, many meanings and they are stylistically neutral. Almost all words of native origin belong to very important semantic groups. The number and character of the borrowed words tell us of the relations between the peoples, the level of their culture, etc. It is for this reason that borrowings have often been called the milestones of history.

The well known linguist Shuchard said «No language is entirely pure» [1], that all the languages are mixed.

It must be pointed out that while the general historical reasons for borrowing from different languages have been studied with a considerable degree of through the purely linguistic reasons for borrowings are still open to investigation. The number and character of borrowings do not only depend on the historical conditions, on the nature and length of the contacts, but also on the degree of the genetic and structural proximity of languages concerned. The closer the languages the deeper and more versatile is the influence.¹ Chatman, Seymour. Stylistics; Quantitative and Qualitative, 1967, V. 1, p.30

Borrowed words enter the language as a result of influence of two main causes or factors: linguistic and extra-linguistic. Economic, cultural, industrial, political relations of speakers of the language with other countries refer to extra-linguistic factors.

For example, due to the great influence of the Roman civilization Latin was for a long time used in England as the language of learning and religion. Old Norse of the Scandinavian tribes was the language of the conquerors. French (Norman dialect) was the language of the other conquerors who brought with them a lot of new notions of a higher social system, developed feudalism. It was the language of upper classes, of official documents and school.

The absence of equivalent words in the language to express new subjects or a phenomena makes people to borrow words.

The closer the two interacting languages are in structure the easier it is for words of one language to penetrate into the other.

Borrowings enter the language in two ways through oral speech (by immediate contact between the people) and through written speech by indirect contact through books) Words borrowed orally are usually short and they undergo more changes in the act of adopter. Written borrowings are often rather long and they are unknown to many people, speaking the language.

We distinguish translation loans, borrowings proper and semantic loans. Translation loans are words and expressions formed from the material already existing in the language but according to patterns taken from another language, by way of literal morpheme - for - morpheme translation.

The term «semantic loan» is used to denote the development in a word of a new meaning due to the influence of a related word in another language. The English word pioneer meant «explorer» and «one who is among the first in new fields of activity.» now under the influence of the Russian word «Пионер» it has come to mean «a member of the Young Pioneers' Organization»

Borrowings proper are words which are taken from another language with their sound graphic forms and their meaning.

1.3 The influence of borrowings on the vocabulary of the language

The number of borrowings on Old English was meager. In the Middle English period there was an influx of loans. It is often contended, that since the Norman conquest borrowing has been the chief factor in the enrichment of the English vocabulary and as a result there was a sharp decline in the productivity and role of word-formation. Historical evidence, however, testifies to the fact that throughout its entire history, even in the periods of the mightiest influxes of borrowings, other processes no less intense, were in operation - word - formation and semantic development, which involved both native and borrowed elements. If the estimation of the role of borrowings is based on the study of words recorded in the dictionary, it is easy to overestimate the effect of the foreign words, as the number of native words is extremely small compared with the number of borrowings recorded. The only true way to estimate the relation of the native to the borrowed element is to consider the two as actually used in speech. If one counts every word used, including repetitions, in some reading matter, the proportion of native to borrowed words will be quite different. On such a count, every writer uses considerable more native words than borrowings. Shakespeare, for example has 90%, Milton 81%, Tennyson 88%. This shows how important is the comparatively small nucleus of native words. Different borrowings are marked by different frequency value. Those well established in the vocabulary may be as frequent in speech as native words, whereas others occur very rarely. The great number of borrowings in English left some imprint upon the language. The first effect of foreign influence is observed in the volume of its vocabulary. Due to its history the English language, more than any other modern language, has absorbed foreign elements in its vocabulary. But the adoption of foreign words must not be understood as were quantities change. Any importation into the lexical system brings about semantic and stylistic changes in the words of this language and changes in its synonymic groups.

It has been mentioned that when borrowed words were identical in meaning with those already in English the adopted word very often displaced the native word. In most cases, however, the borrowed words and synonymous native words (or words borrowed earlier) remained in the language, becoming more or less differentiated in meaning and use. As a result the number of synonymic groups in English greatly increased. The synonymic groups became voluminous and acquired many words rarely used. This brought about a rise in the percentage of stylistic synonyms.

As a result of the differentiation in meaning between synonymous words many native words or words borrowed earlier narrowed their meaning or sphere of application.

Abundant borrowing intensified the difference between the word stock of the literary national language and dialects as well as between British English and American English. On the one hand a number of words were borrowed into the literary national language which are not to be found in the dialects. In a number of cases the dialects have preserved some Anglo-Saxon words which were replaced by borrowings in the literary language. On the other hand, a number of words were borrowed into dialects are not used throughout the country.

In spite of the numerous outside linguistic influences and the etymological heterogeneity of its vocabulary the English language is still, in essential characteristics a Germanic language. It has retained a ground work of Germanic words and grammar. A comparative study of the nature and role of native and borrowed words show that borrowing has never been the chief means of replenishing the English vocabulary. Word-formation and semantic development were throughout the entire history of the English language much more productive than borrowing. Besides most native words are marked by a higher frequency value. The great number of borrowings bringing with them new phonon-morphological types, new phonetic morphological and semantic features left its imprint upon the English language. On the other hand under the influence of the borrowed element words already existing in the English changed to some extent their semantic structure, collectability, frequency and word forming ability. Borrowing also considerably enlarged the English vocabulary and brought about some changes in English synonymic groups, in the distribution of the English vocabulary through sphere of application and in the lexical divergence between the two variants of the literary national language and its dialects.

There are many words, one a native word, the other a Romance loan, originally of lither identical or similar meaning with some distinction made today, such as «freedom», and «liberty», «happiness», and «felicity», «help», and «aid», «love», and «charity», and we should find that the native word has a more emotional sense is homely and unassuming whereas the loan word is colder, aloof more dignified more formal.

2. Assimilation of borrowed words

2.1 Phonetic assimilation of borrowed words

All the changes that borrowed elements undergo may be divided into two large groups.

On the one hand there are changes specific of borrowed words only. These changes aim at adapting words of foreign origin to the norms of the borrowing language, e. g. the constant combinations [p n], [p s], [t p t] in the words «pneumatics», «psychology», «ptolomey» of Greek origin were simplified into [n], [s], [t], since the consonant combinations [p s], [pt], [p n] very frequent at the end of English words (as in «sleeps», «stopped») were never used in the initial position.

It is very important to discriminate between the two processes the adaptation of borrowed material to the norms of the language and the development of these words according to the laws of the language. This differentiation is not always easily discernible. In most cases we must resort to historical analysis before we can draw any definite conclusions. There is nothing in the form of the words «procession» and «progression» to show that the former was already used in England in the 11^th century, the latter not till the 15^th century. The history of these words reveals that the word procession has undergone a number of changes along side with other English words change in declension, accentuation, structure, sounds, whereas the word «progression» underwent some changes by analogy with the word «procession» and other similar words already at the time of its appearance in the language.

Since the process of assimilation of borrowings includes changes in sound-form, morphological structure, grammar characteristics, meaning and usage linguists distinguish phonetic, grammatical and lexical assimilation of borrowings.

Phonetic assimilation, comprising changes in sound-form and stress, is perhaps the most conspicuous. Sounds that were alien to the English language were fitted into its scheme of sounds. For instance, the long [e] and [E] in recent French borrowings, quite strange to English speech, are rendered with the help of [e i] (as in the words «communiquй», «chaussee», «cafй») Familiar sounds or sound combinations the position of which was strange to the English language, were replaced by other sounds or sound combinations to make the words conform to the norms of the language, e.g. German spits [spits] was turned into English [spits].

Substitution of native sounds for foreign ones usually takes place in the very act of borrowing. But some words retain their foreign pronunciation for a long time before the unfamiliar sounds are replaced by similar native sounds.

In words that were added to English from foreign sources, especially from French or Latin, the accent was gradually transferred to the first syllable. Thus words like «honour», «reason» were accented on the same principle as the native «father», «mother».

2.2 Grammatical assimilation of borrowed words

Usually as soon as words from other languages were introduced into English they lost their former grammatical categories and inflexions and acquired new grammatical categories and paradigms by analogy with other English words.

If a borrowed word loses its former grammatical categories and inflexions and gets new grammatical categories and paradigms by analogy with other English words we say the word is undergone grammatical assimilation. Sometimes the foreign inflexions are fallen off.

E. g. sputnik, sputniks, sputnik's

Lat. consutare (v) English consult

However there are some words in Modern English that have for centuries retained their foreign inflexions. Thus a considerable group of borrowed nouns, all of them terms or literary words adopted in the 16^th century or later, have preserved their original plural inflexion to this day, e.g.

Phenomenon-phonomena

Addendum-addenda

Other borrowings of the same period have two plural forms the native and the foreign, e. g. vacuum-vacua, vacuums, virtuoso-virtuosi, virtuosos.

All borrowings that were composite in structure in their native language appeared in English as indivisible roat-words, unless there were already words with the same morphemes in it, e. g. in the word «saunter» the French infinitive inflexion-er is retained, but it has changed its quality, it is preserved in all the other grammatical forms of the word. (saunters, suntered, sauntering), which means that it has become part of the stem in English.

It must be borne in mind that when there appears in a language a group of borrowed words built on the same pattern or containing the same morphemes, the morphological structure of the words becomes apparent and in course of time their word-building elements can be employed to form new words.

Sometimes in borrowed words foreign affixes are replaced by those available in the English language, e. g. the inflexion - us in Latin adjectives was replaced in English with the suffixes - ous or - al

Barbarus-barbarous

Botanicus-botanical

Balneus-balneal

2.3 Lexical assimilation of borrowed words

Loaning words from another language causes some changes in meaning of the word borrowed.

When a word is taken over into another language its semantic structure as a rule undergoes great changes.

Polysemantic words are usually adopted only in one or two of their meanings.

Thus the word «timbre» that had a number of meanings in French was borrowed into English as a musical term only. The words cargo and cask, highly polysemantic in Spanish were adopted only in one of their meanings - «the goods carried in a ship», «a barrel for holding liquids» respectively.

In some cases we can observe specialization of meaning, as in the word hangar, denoting a building in which aero planes are kept and revive, which had the meaning of «review» in French and came to denote a kind of theatrical entertainment in English.

In the process of its historical development a borrowing sometimes acquired new meanings that were not to be found in its former semantic structure. For instance, the word move in Modern English has developed the meanings of `propose', `change one's flat', `mix with people' and others that the French movoir does not possess. The word scope, which originally had the meaning of `aim purpose', now means `ability to understand `, `the field within which an activity takes place, sphere', `opportunity, freedom of action'. As a rule the development of new meanings takes place 50-100 years after the word is borrowed.

The semantic structure of borrowings changes in other ways as well. Some meanings become more general, others more specialized, etc. For instance, the word «terrorist» that was taken over from French in the meaning of «Jacobin» widened its meaning to `one who governs, or opposes a government, by violent means. The word umbrella, borrowed in the meaning of a sunshade or pares came to denote similar protection from the rain as well.

Usually the primary meaning of a borrowed word was a retained throughout its history, but sometimes it becomes a secondary meaning. Thus the Scandinavian borrowings wing, root, take and many others have retained their primary meanings to the present day.

Sometimes change of meaning is the result of associating borrowed words with familiar words which somewhat resemble them in sound but which are not at all related. This process, which is termed folk etymology, often changes the form of the word in whole or in part, so as to bring it nearer to the word or words with which it is thought to be connected, e. g. the French sur (o) under had the meaning of «overflow». In English r (o) under was associated by mistake with round - думалок and the verb was interpreted as meaning `encclose on all sides, encircle' Folle - etimologization is a slow process; people first attempt to give the foreign borrowing its foreign premonition, but gradually popular use involves a new pronunciation and spelling.

Another phenomenon which must also receive special attention is the formation of derivatives from borrowed words. New derivatives are usually formed with the help of productive affixes, often of Anglo-Saxon origin. Reference Guide top Grammar. A Handbook of English as a second language USIA Edition first published 1994

2.4 International words as loan words

As the process of borrowing is mostly connected with the appearance of new notions which the loan words serve to express, it is natural that the borrowing is seldom limited to one language. Words of identical origin that occur in several languages as a result of simultaneous or successive borrowings from one ultimate source are called international words.

Expanding global contacts result in the considerable growth of international vocabulary. All languages depend for their changes upon the cultural and social matrix in which they operate and various contacts between nations are part of this matrix reflected in vocabulary.

International words play an especially prominent part in various terminological systems including the vocabulary of science, industry and art. The etymological sources of this vocabulary reflect the history of world culture. Thus, for example, the mankind's cultural debt to Italy is reflected in the great number of Italian words connected with architecture, painting and especially music that are borrowed into most European languages: allegro, andante, aria, arioso, barcarole, baritone, concert, duet, opera, piano and many more.

The rate of change in technology, political, social and artistic life has been greatly accelerated in the 20^th century and so has the rate of growth of international word-stock. A few examples of comparatively new words due to the progress of science will suffice to illustrate the importance of international vocabulary: algorithms, antenna, antibiotic, automation, bionics, cybernetics, entropy, gene, genetic, code, graph, microelectronics etc. All these show sufficient likeness in English, French, Russian and several other languages.

To adapt means to make or undergo modifications in function and structure so as to be fit for a new use, a new environment or a new situation. Being adaptive system the vocabulary is constantly adjusting itself to the changing requirements and conditions of human communications and cultural and other needs. This process of self-regulation of the lexical system is a result of overcoming contradictions between the state of the system and the demands it has to meet. The speaker chooses from the existing stock of words such words that in his opinion can adequately express his thought and feeling. It is important to stress that the development is not confined to coining new words on the existing patterns but in adapting the very structure of the system to its changing functions.

According to F. de Saussure synchronic linguistics deals with systems and diachronic linguistic - with single elements, and the two methods must be kept strictly apart. A language system then should be studied as something fixed and unchanging, whereas we observe the opposite: it is constantly changed and readjusted as the need arises. The concept of adaptive systems overcomes this contradiction and permits us to study language as a constantly developing but systematic whole. The adaptive system approach gives a more adequate account of the systematic phenomena of a vocabulary by explaining more facts about the functioning of words and providing more relevant generalizations, because we can take into account the influence of extra - linguistic reality. The study of the vocabulary as an adaptive system reveals the pragmatic essence of the communication process, i.e. the way language is used to influence the addressee. There is a considerable difference of opinion as to the type of system involved, although the majority of linguists nowadays agree that the vocabulary should be studied as a system. Our present state of knowledge is, however, insufficient to present the whole of the vocabulary as one articulated system, so we deal with it as if it were a set of interrelated systems.

To sum up this brief treatment of loan words it is necessary to stress that in studying borrowed words a linguist cannot be content with establishing the source, the date of penetration, the semantic sphere to which the word belonged and the circumstances of the process of borrowing. All these are very important, but one should also be concerned with the changes the new language system into which the loan word penetrates causes in the word itself, and on the other hand, look for the changes occasioned by the newcomer in the English vocabulary, when in finding its way into the new language it pushed some of its lexical neighbors aside. In the discussion above we have tried to show the importance of the problem of conformity with the patterns typical of the receiving language and its semantic needs.

borrowing word foreign language english

3. Foreign language influences in English

3.1 Borrowed words

While many words enter English as slang, not all do. Some words are adopted from other languages; some are mixtures of existing words (portmanteau words), and some are new coinages made of roots from dead languages: e.g. thanatopsis. No matter the origin, though, words seldom, if ever, are immediately accepted into the English language. Here is a list of the most common foreign language influences in English, where other languages have influenced or contributed words to English.

· Celtic words are almost absent, except for dialectal words, such as the Yan Tan Tethera system of counting sheep. However, English syntax was influenced by Celtic languages, starting from the Middle English; for example, the system of continuous tenses (absent in other Germanic languages) was a cliche of similar Celtic phrasal structures.

· French words for the meat of an animal, noble words (this comes from the influence of the Norman language), words referring to food - e.g. au gratin. Nearly 30% of English words (in an 80,000 word dictionary) may be of French origin.

· Latin words, technical or biological names, medical terminology, legal terminology. See also: Latin influence in English

· Greek words - medical terminology (like for instance -phobias and -ologies)

· Scandinavian languages such as Old Norse - words such as sky and troll or, more recently, geysir.

· Dutch - words relating to sailing, e.g. skipper, keel etc., and civil engineering, such as dam, polder.

· Spanish - words relating to warfare and tactics, for instance flotilla and guerrilla; or related to science and culture, whether coined in Arabic (such as algebra), origined in Amerindian civilizations (Cariban: cannibal, hurricane; Mescalero: apache; Nahuatl: tomato, coyote, chocolate; Quechua: potato; Taнno: tobacco), or Iberian Romance languages (aficionado, albino, alligator, cargo, cigar, embargo, guitar, jade, mesa, paella, platinum, plaza, renegade, rodeo, salsa, savvy, sierra, siesta, tilde, tornado, vanilla etc). Italian - words relating to music, piano, fortissimo. Or Italian culture, such as piazza, pizza, gondola, balcony, fascism. The English word umbrella comes from Italian ombrello.

· Indian - words relating to culture, originating from the colonial era. Many of these words are of Persian origin rather than Hindi because Persian was the official language of the Mughal courts. e.g.: pyjamas, bungalow, verandah, jungle, curry, shampoo, khaki.

· German: Main article: List of German expressions in English. Some words relating to the World War I and the World War II, e.g. blitz. And some food terms, such as wurst, hamburger and frankfurter. Also: wanderlust, schadenfreude, zeitgeist, kaputt, kindergarten, autobahn, rucksack.

· Hebrew and Yiddish - words used in religious contexts, like Sabbath, kosher, hallelujah, amen, and jubilee or words that have become slang like schmuck, shmooze, nosh, oy vey, and schmutz.

· Arabic - Islamic religious terms such as jihad and hadith. Also some scientific vocabulary borrowed through Iberian Romance languages in the Middle Ages (alcohol, algebra, azimuth, nadir).

3.2 French borrowings in the modern English language

English is a Germanic Language of the Indo-European Family. It is the second most spoken language in the world.

It is estimated that there are 300 million native speakers and 300 million who use English as a second language and a further 100 million use it as a foreign language. It is the language of science, aviation, computing, diplomacy, and tourism. It is listed as the official or co-official language of over 45 countries and is spoken extensively in other countries where it has no official status.

This domination is unique in history. English is on its way to becoming the world's unofficial international language. Mandarin (Chinese) is spoken by more people, but English is now the most widespread of the world's languages.

Half of all business deals are conducted in English. Two thirds of all scientific papers are written in English. Over 70% of all post / mail is written and addressed in English. Most international tourism, aviation and diplomacy are conducted in English.

English contains many words from Norman French, brought to England during the 11th century Norman Conquest.

In 1066 the Normans conquered Britain. French became the language of the Norman aristocracy and added more vocabulary to English. More pairs of similar words arose.

French-English bilinguism

French	English
close	shut
reply	answer
odour	smell
annual	yearly
demand	ask
chamber	room
desire	wish
power	might
ire	wrath / anger

Because the English underclass cooked for the Norman upper class, the words for most domestic animals are English (ox, cow, calf, sheep, swine, deer) while the words for the meats derived from them are French (beef, veal, mutton, pork, bacon, venison).

The Germanic form of plurals (house, housen; shoe, shoen) was eventually displaced by the French method of making plurals: adding an s (house, houses; shoe, shoes). Only a few words have retained their Germanic plurals: men, oxen, feet, teeth, children.

It wasn't till the 14th Century that English became dominant in Britain again. In 1399, King Henry IV became the first king of England since the Norman Conquest whose mother tongue was English. By the end of the 14th Century, the dialect of London had emerged as the standard dialect of what we now call Middle English. Chaucer wrote in this language.

Modern English began around the 16th Century and, like all languages, is still changing. One change occurred when the suffix of some verb forms became s (loveth, loves; hath, has). Auxiliary verbs also changed (he is risen, he has risen).

Norman French is the 11th century language of France and England. It is an Indo-European language.

In 1066, the Norman king, William the Conqueror, invaded England. Many Norman French words entered the language after this. In general, the Normans were the nobility, while the native English were their servants. The names of domestic animals and their meats show this relationship. The animal name is English ("cow", "sheep", "pig") while the names of the meats derived from these animals is French ("beef", "mutton", "pork").

3.3 Russian Borrowings in Modern English

Words of Russian origin are treated as:

(1) direct borrowings from Russian, whatever the genetic source;

armiak [Russ. armyaku, of Tatar origin]

1. A staff woven of camel's hair by the Tatars.

2. In Russia, a plain caftan or outer garment, made of armiak or a similar material, worn by the peasantry.

(2) indirect borrowings, i.e., either the genetic source or one of the primary historical sources;

kvass [= F. kvas = G. kevass, < Russ. kvasu, a drink so called.] A fermented drink in general use in Russia, taking the place of the beer of other countries. Common kvass is made from an infusion of raised rye flour or dough, or of other flour or baked bread, with malt. Finer kinds are made from apples, raspberries, or other fruit, without malt.

(3) words describing European and Asian realia, but not etymologised;

sastrugi, n. pl. A term current in Siberia for flutings or little ridges of windblown snow, running parallel with the direction of the air-currents, and now sometimes quoted in English. See zastruga. Rep. Brit. Ass'n Advancement of Sci., 1900, p. 817.

(4) words of uncertain origin, i.e., either obscure, unknown or etymologised in a vague way;

obarne†, obarni†, n. [Origin obscure.] A beverage associated in texts of the sixteenth century with meath and mead, and in one case mentioned as a variety of mead.

araba 1, arba, n. [Also aroba, = Bulg. araba, Russ. arba, < Hind. Pers. arвba, Turk. Ar. `arabah, a cart, wheeled vehicle.] A heavy, springless wagon, usually covered with a screen as shelter from the rays of the sun, drawn by oxen or cows, and used throughout north-western and central Asia, India, Turkey, and Russia, wherever Tatars have settled.

(5) words derived from a historical source different from Russian;

yurt, n. [Siberian.] One of the houses or huts, whether permanent or movable, of the natives of northern and central Asia. Also yourta, yourte, jurt.

Many headwords are derived, either directly or indirectly, from Russian, but this is not always the case. Some words, such as aoul, araba, barchan, caftan, dzeren, kefir, knez, sarlak, shaman, shor, tarpan, verst, or voivode, are almost notorious for having non-Russian etymologies, because usually only one out of five dictionaries indicates their Russian origin. Other borrowings, such as balagan, barukhzy, baidar, carlock, chum, corsac, dolina, gley, iconostas, Kalmuck, Katyusha, kendir, koumiss, olen, pogrom, rendzina, starost or zubr, show an equal degree of variability, i.e., the Russian and non- Russian etymologies are found in roughly the same number of dictionaries.

3.4 Turkic borrowings in English language

Languages of Turkic peoples left numerous traces in different languages, including the English language. Turkic borrowings, which belong to the social and political vocabulary, are generally used in special literature and in the historical and ethnographical works, which relate to the life of Turkic and Muslim peoples. The ethnographical words are generally used in the scientific literature, and in the historical and ethnographical texts. The adoption of Indian words, among which there were some Turkic borrowings, became one of the ways for the words of the Turkic origin to penetrate English. Additionally, several words of Turkic origin penetrated English through East European languages like Russian and Polish. German, Latin, Spanish, Italian, French, Hungarian and Serbo-Croatian were also intermediary languages for the Turkic words to penetrate English, as well as containing numerous Turkic loanwords themselves (e.g. Serbo-Croatian contains around 5,000 Turkic loanwords, primarily from Turkish

In the nineteenth century, Turkic loanwords, generally of Turkish origin, began to penetrate not only through the writings of the travelers, diplomats and merchants, and through the ethnographical and historical works, but also through the press. In 1847, there were two English-language newspapers in Istanbul - The Levant Herald and The Levant Times, seven newspapers in French, one in German and 37 in Turkish. Turkish contributed the largest share of the Turkic loans, which penetrated into the English directly. This can be explained by the fact that Turkey had the most intensive and wide connections with England. Nevertheless, there are many Turkic loans in English, which were borrowed by its contacts with other peoples - Azerbaijanis, Tatars, Uzbeks, Kazakhs and Kirghiz.

Most of the Turkic loans in English carry exotic or ethnographical connotations. They do not have equivalents in English, do not have synonymic relations with primordial words, and generally are used to describe the fauna, flora, life customs, political and social life, and an administrative-territorial structure of Turkic regions. But there are many Turkic loans, which are still part of the frequently used vocabulary. Some Turkic loans have acquired new meanings, unrelated to their etymology.

To conclude, the words of the Turkic origin began penetrating English as early as the Middle Ages, the Turkic loanwords found their way into English through other languages, most frequently through French. Since the 16c, beginning from the time of the establishment of the direct contacts between England and Turkey, and Russia, in English appeared new direct borrowings from Turkic languages. German, Polish, Russian, Serbo-Croatian, French, Arabic, Armenian, Afrikaans, Hungarian, Yiddish, Indian, Spanish, Italian, Latin, Malayan, to a different extent, took part in the process of the transfer of the Turkic words into English. The main language from which the borrowings were made, was Turkish.

3.5 Borrowings in contemporary literature

To give the view of the borrowings in modern English we decided to analyze the text from contemporary writer Sophie Kinsella her novel “Shopaholic”.

“Whoever designed our trendy kitchen bar stools obviously never had their parents come over for a cup of coffee. It takes Mum and Dad about five minutes to climb up onto them, while I watch, completely petrified they're going to topple over. "Spindly legs, aren't they?" puffs Dad as he tries for the fifth time. Meanwhile Mum's inching slowly onto the seat, gripping the granite breakfast bar for dear life. At last, somehow, they're both perched up safely on the steel seats, looking all self-conscious as though they're on a TV talk show.

"Are you all right?" I say anxiously. "Because I could go and get some different chairs..."

"Nonsense!" says Dad at once. "This is very comfy!" He's lying. I can see him clenching his hands round the edges of the slippery seat and glancing down at the slate floor below as though he's balanced on a forty-fourth-floor ledge.

"The seats are a little hard, aren't they, love?" ventures Mum. "You should get some nice tie-on cushions from Peter Jones"

"Er... maybe"

I hand Mum and Dad their cups, pull out a bar stool for myself, and nonchalantly swing myself up onto it.

Ow. That hurt

God, they are a bit tricky to get onto. Stupid shiny seats.

"So ... are you both well?" I say, reaching for my coffee.

There's a short silence

"Becky, we came here for a reason," says Dad. "I have something to tell you"

He looks so grave, I feel worried. Maybe it's not the house after all.

Maybe it's something worse.

"It's to do with me," he continues.

"You're ill," I say before I can stop myself. "Oh God. Oh God. I knew there was something wrong -- "I'm not ill. It's not that. It's... something else" He massages his temples, then looks up. "Becky, years ago -- "Break it to her gently, Graham!" Mum interrupts.

"I am breaking it to her gently!" retorts Dad, swiveling round. "That's exactly what I'm doing!"

"You're not!" says Mum. "You're rushing in!"

Now I'm totally bewildered.

"Break what to me gently?" I say, looking from face to face. "What's going on?"

"Becky, before I met your mother..." Dad avoids my gaze. "There was another... lady in my life"

"Right," I say, my throat thick.

Mum and Dad are getting divorced and that's why they're selling the house. I'm going to be the product of a broken home.

"We lost touch," Dad continues. "But recently... events have occurred"

"You're confusing her, Graham!" exclaims Mum.

"I'm not confusing her! Becky, are you confused?"

"Well... a bit," I admit.

Mum leans over and takes my hand.

"Becky, love, the long and the short of it is... you have a sister"

A sister?

I stare at her blankly. What's she talking about?

"A half sister, we should say," Dad adds, nodding earnestly. "Two years older than you"

My brain is short-circuiting. This doesn't make any sense. How could I have a sister and not know about it?

"Dad has a daughter, darling," Mum says gently. "A daughter he knew nothing about until very recently. She got in touch with us while you were on honeymoon. We've seen each other a few times, haven't we, Graham?" She glances at Dad, who nods. "She's... very nice!"

The kitchen is completely silent. I swallow a few times. I can't quite take this in. Dad had another child?

Dad had another -- "So ..." I falter. "Who was this other lady in your life?"

I can't believe I'm asking my own father about his love life. Even if it is his love life of thirty years ago.

Dad doesn't flinch at the question.

"Her name was Marguerite," he says with a steadfast gaze. "I was traveling a lot for business then and she was a stewardess on the 7:40 London to Carlisle train"

A stewardess on a train. I have a sudden image of a young Dad sitting in a pale 1970s suit with flappy lapels, smiling up at a uniformed girl as she pours him coffee. She brushes against him as she moves the trolley on...”

Having analyzed this text we came to the following results: borrowed words in this text is 30 %, it means that 70% of words are of Old and Middle English origin. Among the borrowed words - 40% borrowed from Latin, 28% from French, from Germanic languages 22% and from others(Turkish, Italian, Spanish etc) 10%. Here are some examples

Design- Latin designare `to designate',

kitchen -, based on Latin coquere `to cook' coffee-late 16th cent.: from Turkish kahveh, from Arabic qahwa, probably via Dutch koffie

petrify - from French pйtrifier, from medieval Latin petrificare,

flinch - French

continue - Latin

granite Italian

chair - French

different - Latin

So, we can see that borrowed words have entirely entered the language and are widely used in contemporary language, and also we can see that some words derive from two or more languages at the same time for example petrify - from French pйtrifier, from medieval Latin petrificare. This because of the Origin of Germanic languages, they have the same roots and the same history also, and we should say that the process of borrowings is closely connected with the historical and political events.

Conclusion

The role of loan words in the formation and development of English vocabulary is dealt with in the history of the language. It is there that the historical circumstances are discussed under which words borrowed from Latin, from Scandinavian dialects, from Norman and Parisian French and many other languages, including Russian, were introduced into English. Lexicology, on the other hand, has in this connection tasks of its own, being chiefly concerned with the material and the results of assimilation.

The main problems of etymology and borrowed words as they concern the English language are comprehensively and consistently treated in Professor A.I. Smirnitsky's book on lexicology. Professor A.I. Smirnitsky deals with these issues mainly in terms of word sameness reflecting his methodological approach to word theory.

In the present paragraph attention must be concentrated on the assimilation of loan words as a way of their interaction with the system of the language as a whole. The term assimilation of a borrowed word is used to denote a partial or total conformation to the phonetically, graphical and morphological standards of the receiving language and its semantic system. The degree of assimilation depends on the length of period during which the word has been used in the receiving language, upon its frequency. Oral borrowings due to personal contacts are assimilated more completely and more rapidly than literary borrowings, i. e. borrowings through written speech.

The list of used literature

1. Блумфилд Л «Язык» М. 1968

2. Смирницкий А.И. «Синтаксис английского языка». Москва 1957

3. Хаймович, Б.С. Роговская Б.И. Теоретическая грамматика английского языка. «Высшая школа» Москва 1987

4. Чейф У.Л. «Значениe и структура языка» Москва 1975

5. «A Grammar of Present-day English» E.M. Govdon, I.P. Krylova.М. 1971

6. A course in theoretical English Grammar M.Y. Blokh

7. Andrй Lefevere, «Translation: Its Geneology in the West,» in Translation, History amd Culture, ed. Susan Bassnett and Andrй Lefevere (London and New York: Pinter Publishers, 1990), 14.

8. «A textbook of translation» Peter Newmark 1995

9. Bryant M.A. «Functional English Grammar». N.Y. 1945

10. Francis W.N. «The structure of American English» New York. 1998

11. George Steiner, After Babel: Aspects of Language and Translation (London: Oxford University Press, 1975), 265-66, 276-78, citations on 277, 266, respectively.

12. Ilyish. «The structure of Modern English» «Просвешение», Ленинград 1971

13. I.G. Koshevaya «The theory of English Grammar» «Просвешение», 1982

14. Information from Internet. http. www.

15. M.A. Ganshina, N.M. Vasilevskaya «English Grammar» Higher school Publishing House 1964

16. Reference Guide top Grammar. A Handbook of English as a second language USIA Edition first published 1994

17. Sophie Kinsella “Shopaholic” , 2003

18. Strang B. «Modern English Structure» L.D. 1974

19. Sweet H.A. «New English Grammar Logical and Historical» Pt. 1. Oxf., 1891. Pt. 2. Oxf., 1898

20. Zandvoort R.W. «A Handbook of English Grammar» 1958

Appendix A

Foreign terms used in English

German terms commonly used in English

Berliner Weisse, sour beer infused with fruit syrup

Biergarten, open-air drinking establishment

Delikatessen, speciality food retailer, fine foods

Gummi bear, also found with the Anglicized spelling gummy bear, German spelling: Gummibдr

Hamburger, sandwich with a meat patty and garnishments

Hefeweizen, unfiltered wheat beer (containing yeast)

Muesli, breakfast cereal (Swiss German diminutive of "mues"; possibly related to English "mush")

Pilsener (or Pils, Pilsner), pale lager beer

Brezel, evolved into Pretzel, flour and yeast based pastry

Pumpernickel, type of sourdough rye bread, strongly flavoured, dense, and dark in colour

Rollmops, rolled, pickled herring fillet rial)

Streusel

Strudel (e. g. Apfelstrudel), a filled pastry

Abseil (German spelling: sich abseilen, a reflexive verb, to rope (seil) oneself (sich) down (ab)); the term abseiling is used in the UK and commonwealth countries, "roping (down)" in various English settings, "rappelling" in the US and "snapling" by Israelis.

an word can also mean Carbine.

Kutte, a type of vest made out of denim or leather and traditionally worn by bikers, metalheads and punks

Fahrvergnьgen meaning "driving pleasure"; originally, the word was introduced in a Volkswagen advertising campaign in the U.S., one tag line was: "Are we having Fahrvergnьgen yet?").

Foosball, from the German word for association football, FuЯball; paradoxically, foosball is called Kicker in German

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