Analysis of the use of self-neologisms in English literature on the example of "Harry Potter" book series

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Introduction

Development of technology, science and other aspects of life lead to the emergence of the new words in every language around the world. Invention of brand new technologies, scientific discoveries and attempts of marketing and advertisements to attract people's attention constantly create new words. Usually those created words appear to us through mass media, Internet, commercials and social networks. Neologisms can be defined as newly coined lexical units that acquire new sense.

Creation of English language neologisms started back in the 16th century during the period of great cultural movement, Renaissance, which affected literature as well. Many writers and poets of that time used new created words in their works in order to “enrich” English language.

Consequently, the vocabulary of a language is changing by introduction of new words and phrases into it. Some of the newly coined words successfully adapt in the language and are extensively used by people, whether other neologisms exist for a while and disappear from the language. The new words that come into extensive use in the society are then codified in dictionaries. “The online Oxford English Dictionary (OED) is updated quarterly with at least 1,000 new and revised entries; this is a fair measure of how dynamic our vocabulary is” (Minkova & Stockwell 2009: 5). New words appear according to the productive means of word-building in a given language- the process which creates new lexical units.

The paper is dedicated to study use of self-neologisms in English literature and their word formation processes. The main purposes of this paper are to analyze neologisms, types and the ways most neologisms formed. Also, it aims to analyze a popular “Harry Potter” book series about the education and adventure of Harry Potter, a young magician and self-neologisms created by the author Joanne Rowling.

The paper includes Introduction, two main chapters and Conclusion. On the base of the analysis a number of exercise which are connected with the Harry Potter book series for students of linguistics and English language is proposed in the end.

The reason for choosing this particular subject is the high topicality and importance of new words in our life. Especially nowadays, with the creation of different inventions and innovations, a significant number of new words have appeared in the English language many of which are still unfamiliar to many people. Moreover, it is very interesting to trace the origin, ways of formation and development of neologisms; to understand the process of their appearance in the English language.

The survey and research of theoretical part of the paper have been made on the base of several books, Russian, American and other authors.

The topicality of the topic is that neologisms are sufficient and necessary in our constantly changing world and life. Especially, development of science and technology, in the field of literature, art and music and emergence of new concepts and inventions needs new words to define them. There are also other fields creating new words that are not mentioned here. For instance, before 1980, there was no doubt that a "mouse" referred only to a furry rodent. These are means of the relevance of this theme is important to be studied and researched. Use of self-neologisms in English literature is a topic studied poorly among linguists and scientists. The work implemented in this paper shows a unique contribution to literature and English language itself made by author of “Harry Potter” Joan Rowling. Furthermore, learning neologisms from literature created by authors themselves is very engaging and cognitive for both pupils and students at different levels of studying English language.

The main aim of this work is to describe neologisms by their meaning and structure, to perform an analysis of self-neologisms in Harry Potter books by Joan Rowling and design exercises as a way of learning neologisms in English literature.

The following tasks have been solved in the qualification paper:

1. To reveal historical background of neologisms.

2. To study different types of word-formation.

3. To outline types of neologisms by various authors.

4. To classify Joan Rowling self-neologisms according to the origin, word formation processes, parts of speech, word-structure etc.

5. To design exercises based on neologisms from Harry Potter books.

The object of the research work is the use of self-neologisms in English literature.

The subject matter of the qualification paper is analysis of self-neologisms in Harry Potter book series and developing exercises as an example or way to learn neologisms from literature in a class.

Hypothesis.

Scientific novelty of the research is collecting and performing analysis of word-formation ways and types of neologisms by various authors. Tables and diagrams were composed according to analysis of the data. A study of self-neologisms from well-known “Harry Potter” book series was contributed by analyzing a degree of recognition of the meanings of neologisms, classification of neologisms in Harry Potter books according to the origins, to the word formation processes, to the part of speech and word-structure. Exercises on self-neologisms were developed and designed as an additional material to lessons for pupils and students of English language that are concerned for learning neologisms from English literature.

Theoretical foundation of this paper consists of books by various foreign and Russian authors, as Peter Newmark, G.B. Antrushina, Arnold and Ginzburg.

Several research methods were used while writing this paper, which are analysis of literature, study and summarizing foreign and Russian authors' works, comparison, and classification.

The practical value. This paper topic can be used as a basis to English language lessons concerned with neologisms in English literature, designed exercises can be used during the lessons among both pupils and students as well.

1. Neologisms. their meaning and structure

1.1 Historical Context of Neologisms

Most commonly, neologism is explained and defined as “new word” in language vocabulary, but identification of actual new words can be a problem. Throughout, definitions of neologisms offered by many linguists can help in distinguishing neologisms in English language vocabulary.

«Neologism: Neologisms are «words that have appeared in a language in connection with new phenomena, new concepts,… but which have not yet entered into the active vocabularies of a significant portion of the native speakers of the language».

«A neologism is the term used to describe a word that has been made-up or invented by a speaker, which appears in a transcript of spontaneous speech dialogue. It can also be described as a word which does not appear in the dictionary of the primary spoken language, but which is also not a foreign word».

The Oxford Dictionary define the word “neologism” as a new coined word or expression, the coining or use of new words.

In the Collins Cobuild English Language Dictionary (1987) neologism referred as a new word or expression in a language, or a familiar word or expression that is now being used with a new meaning.

New words and expressions or neоlоgisms are created for new things irrespective of their scale of importance. A neologism is a newly coined word or phrase or a new meaning for an existing word, or a word borrowed from another language - that is another definition that was written by Arnold I.V.

Peter Newmark states that “Neologisms can be defined as newly coined lexical units or existing lexical units that acquire a new sense”.

Most of them do not live long as they are coined to be used at the moment of speech and for the particular situation. The main feature of it is their temporariness. “The given word or meaning holds only in the given context and is meant only to serve the occasion”.

There are numerous definitions of neologisms can be found in dictionaries and books by various authors, linguists and scientists. The most common is a new word or phrase in the language or already existing word that gets a whole new meaning and is used as a new word.

As neologisms are created due to certain occasion or appearance of something new they can stay in language vocabulary and usage permanently or may disappear and forgotten with the time.

1.2 Historical Context of Neologisms

The Old English vocabulary consisted approximately 25,000-30,000 words. The main three sources that contributed to several changes in the language were: Celtic, Latin and Scandinavian languages. Celtic languages were not a significant source of new words in comparison with the early influence of Latin, especially the period of adoption of Christianity by the Anglo-Saxons. Consequently, words borrowed in that period were connected with Christian religion and religious practices; most of these words go back to Greek prototypes: OE cleric `clerk,' Lat. clericus < Gk. ;OE idol `idol,' Lat. idolum < Gk.; OE paradis `paradise,' Lat. paradisus < Gk. Such words as candle, congregation, devil, disciple, eternal, martyr, mass, pope, noon, offer, testament were also borrowed from Latin (Minkova, Stockwell, 2009). As for Scandinavian one of the main entries was connected with place names containing or ending in -beck `stream', -by `settlement, dwelling', -thorpe `hamlet', -toft `farmstead', -thwaite `clearing'. For example: Beckbury, Carnaby, Grimsthorpe, Thurdistoft, Applethwaite. The other one was connected with name-forms; the best known novelty was the ending -son, as in Henryson, Jackson, Robertson.

In the Middle English, there were several periods that enormously affected the vocabulary of English. One of such is The Norman Conquest that brought new legal, administrative, military, political, literature, and ethnical terms. The massive influx of French words in post-Conquest England changed the proportion of Germanic vs. non- Germanic words in the language. The exact number of French loanwords is difficult to calculate. As Minkova and Stockwell (2009:43) point out.

According to one estimate the number of French words adopted during the Middle English period was slightly over 10,000. Of these, about 75 percent have survived and are still used in Present-Day English. The large volume of new words changed the etymological balance from approximately 3 percent of foreign (Latin) words in Old English, to 25 percent of borrowed words in Middle English. At no other time in the history of English had such a dramatic change in the composition of the vocabulary occurred.

The first two centuries after The Conquest the source of new words was mainly Norman French. Such words as air, beast, beauty, colour, dangerous, diet, feast, flower, jealous, journey, judge, liquor, oil, part, peace, soil, story, baron, noble, throne appeared in English. Also, the word-stock continued to be enriched with words reflecting the leading position of the new aristocracy in the legal, military, administrative, political, religious, and cultural spheres. Many words from English vocabulary were replaced by Romance borrowings: army, assembly, council, defense, empire, mayor, navy, parliament, record, soldier, state, statute, tax. Predictably, words from the fields of literature, art, science, medicine came into the language in large numbers, including the words literature, art, science, medicine, and number themselves: figure, grammar, image, logic, music, pain, physician, poet, remedy, romance, study, surgeon, tragedy. Many of these loanwords can be traced back to Classical Greek and Latin.

The sources of recent loanwords of the late Middle Ages and Renaissance were from almost every language. Garland Cannon (1987) made a research where he analyzed more than one thousand loanwords from eighty-four languages.

Other languages from which English borrowed very small percentage of words are: Arabic, Portuguese, Hindi, Hebrew, Sanskrit, Afrikaans, Malayo -Polynesian, Vietnamese, Swedish, Bengali, Danish, Korean, Irish, Norwegian and 35 other languages (Pyles 1992).

As can be seen from the figure borrowings from Latin language became insignificant probably because of the Old English period where so much of the Latin vocabulary was borrowed. French, as it was said before, remains the basic single language for English vocabulary loans.

The most notable event in Early Modern English period was the introduction of the printing press, by Sir William Caxton, in 1476. That was the period of a crucial influx of new word-stock due to production and accessibility of printed books. The more people read the more new words they knew and adopted. As Minkova and Stockwell observe.

According to one estimate based on counting entries in the OED, as many as 4,500 new words were recorded in English during each decade between 1500 and 1700. Two-thirds of these words were creations based on already existing roots and affixes, but an impressive one-third were straight borrowings. Eliminating new words of unknown origin, and words not recorded after 1700 (one-third of the entries), English adopted for permanent use over 20,000 borrowings in two centuries.

During the Renaissance, the borrowing of new words from French reduced, while Greek and Latin became very important for new learned words. The knowledge of these languages became prestigious and was equivalent to being educated.

Translating the classics into English brought a huge number of new words. In turning The History of the World by Diodorus Siculus into English, Skelton, famous poet and writer, brought more than 800 new Latin words in the language, many of which are recorded by the OED as later borrowings. Such fields as: civilization, philosophy, education, religion, mathematics and geometry, botany, biology, geography, medicine and everyday words enriched by new borrowed words. Some of them are: arena, contend, curriculum, elect, exclusive, imitate, insidious, investigate, relate, sporadic, transcendental, antenna, calculus, cerebellum, compute, evaporate, lacuna, larva, radius, frequency, parental, offensive, virus. What is more, a lot of Latin affixes were also borrowed. They are: - ence, -ancy, -ency, -entia, -antia, -ius, -ia, -ium, -ous, -us, -ate, ante-, post-, sub-, super-. Many of them became part of productive morphology of English. Such words as atheism, atmosphere, chaos, dogma, economy, ecstasy, drama, irony, pneumonia, scheme, and syllable are Greek words that came through Latin or French. Learned borrowings from Greek through higher education are asterisk, catastrophe, crypt, criterion, dialysis, lexicon, polyglot, rhythm, syllabus. Of course, there were also borrowings from Italian, French and many other European languages.

Some Renaissance loan words in English. From Latin and Greek.

Absurdity, adapt, agile, alienate, allusion, anachronism, anonymous, appropriate, assassinate, atmosphere, autograph, benefit, capsule, catastrophe, chaos, climax, conspicuous, contradictory, crisis, criterion, critic, delirium, denunciation, disability, disrespect, emancipate, emphasis, encyclopedia, enthusiasm, epilepsy, eradicate, exact, exaggerate, excavate, excursion, exist, expectation, expensive, explain, external, extinguish, fact, glottis, habitual, halo, harass, idiosyncrasy, immaturity, impersonal, inclemency, jocular, larynx, lexicon, lunar, malignant, monopoly, monosyllable, necessitate, obstruction, pancreas, parasite, parenthesis, pathetic, pneumonia, relaxation, relevant, scheme, skeleton, soda, species, system, tactics, temperature, tendon, thermometer, tibia, tonic, transcribe, ulna, utopian, vacuum, virus.

From or via French.

Alloy, anatomy, battery, bayonet, bigot, bizarre, chocolate, colonel, comrade, detail, docility, duel, entrance, equip, explore, grotesque, invite, moustache, muscle, naturalized, passport, pioneer, probability, progress, shock, surpass, ticket, tomato, vase, vogue, volunteer.

From or via Italian.

Argosy, balcony, ballot, cameo, carnival, concerto, cupola, design, fuse, giraffe, grotto, lottery, macaroni, opera, piazza, portico, rocket, solo, sonata, sonnet, soprano, stanza, stucco, trill, violin, volcano.

From or via Spanish and Portuguese.

Alligator, anchovy, apricot, armada, banana, barricade, bravado, cannibal, canoe, cockroach, cocoa, corral, desperado, embargo, guitar, hammock, hurricane, maize, mosquito, mulatto, negro, potato, port (wine), rusk, sombrero, tank, tobacco, yam.

From other languages.

Bamboo (Malay), bazaar (Persian), caravan (Persian), coffee (Turkish), cruise (Dutch), curry (Tamil), easel (Dutch), flannel (Welsh), guru (Hindi), harem (Arabic), horde(Turkish), keelhaul (Dutch), ketchup (Malay), kiosk (Turkish), knapsack (Dutch), landscape (Dutch), pariah (Tamil), raccoon (Algonquian), rouble (Russian), sago (Malay), sheikh (Arabic), shekel (Hebrew), shogun (Japanese), troll (Norwegian), trousers (Irish Gaelic), turban (Persian), wampum (Algonquian), yacht (Dutch), yoghurt (Turkish).

1.3 Neologisms from literary works

Nonce words are new words formed through any number of word formation processes with the resulting word meeting a lexical need that is not expected to recur. Nonce words are created for the nonce, the term for the nonce meaning "for a single occasion." For example, the follow list of words provides some nonce words with definitions as identified in the Oxford English Dictionary.

cotton-wool - to stuff or close (the ears) with cotton-wool.

jabberwock - The name of the fabulous monster in Lewis Carroll's poem Jabberwocky. Hence in allusive and extended uses, especially "incoherent or nonsensical expression." So jabberwocky is invented language, meaningless language, nonsensical behavior; also nonsensical, meaningless, topsy-turvy.

touch-me-not-ishness - having a "touch-me-not" character; stand-off-ish.

twi-thought - an indistinct or vague thought.

witchcraftical - The practices of a witch or witches; the exercise of supernatural power supposed to be possessed by persons in league with the devil or evil spirits. Power or influence like that of a magician; bewitching or fascinating attraction or charm.

Note that although most nonce words come in and out of use very quickly, some nonce words catch on and become everyday words. For example, Lewis Carroll coined the word chortle, a blend of chuckle and snort, for the poem Jabberwocky in the book Through the Looking-Glass and What Alice Found There; unlike most nonce words, however, chortle has gained acceptance as a legitimate blended word.

The more creative the language context, the more likely we are to encounter lexical experiments, and find ourselves faced with unusual neologisms. The stretching and breaking of the rules governing lexical structure, for whatever reason, is characteristic of several contexts, notably humor, theology, and informal conversation, but the most complex, intriguing and exciting instances come from the language of literature.

Neologisms from literary works may come in different forms, sometimes they are simply taken from narrative works, for instance, "McJob," from Generation X: Tales for an Accelerated Culture by Douglas Coupland; "cyberspace," from Neuromancer by William Gibson; and "nymphet" from Lolita by Vladimir Nabokov.

The other way is when the title of a book or author's name becomes a neologism, for example, "Orwellian" (from George Orwell, referring to his novel Nineteen Eighty-Four). Another way of neologisms emergence in language is their derivation from famous characters of books, such as quixotic (referring to the titular character in Don Quixote de la Mancha by Cervantes), a scrooge (from the main character in Dickens's A Christmas Carol).

These pages illustrate the range of neologisms used by several modern authors, with pride of place given to the chief oneiroparonomastician (or `dream-pun-namer' - the term is Anthony Burgess's), James Joyce. Joyce himself called Finnegan's Wake `the last word in stolentelling', a remark which seems to recognize that the extraordinary lexical coinages in his novel have their roots in perfectly everyday language.

1.4 Different Types of Word-formation

Word-formation is the way of how new different words are created and morphemes are combined with each other. A more precise definition is given by G.N. Babich (2005:51) in his book of English stylistics, “Word formation is that branch of lexicology that studies the derivative structure of existing words and the patterns on which a language builds new words. It is a certain principle of classification of lexicon and one of the main ways of enriching the vocabulary”. Consequently, we can say that together with borrowings from other languages, word-building is very significant in enriching and enlarging English vocabulary. Most English vocabulary emerges by making new words out of already existing words either by adding affixes or combining words together in order to get compounds.

There are a lot of ways of word-formation which are very various and, of course, there are major and minor means of building new words. To quote from the book of lexicology written by G.N. Babich (2005:51), “Neologisms are mainly coined according to the productive models for word-building in the given languages. Most of the literary coinages are built by means of affixation and word compounding”. Also, in many other books of stylistics and lexicology, it is said that affixation and compounding are the most productive and dominant ways of coining new words. Galperin (1981:97) also adds that “Most of the literary-bookish coinages are built by means of affixation and word compounding that is still predominant in coining new words”. Russian lexicologist G.B. Antrushina (1999) distinguishes three most productive means of word-building. They are: derivation, composition and conversion. The other word-formation processes are: shortening, sound-imitation, clipping, alphabetism, acronyms, back-formation, blending and reduplication. Let us look at each type in more detail in what follows.

Affixation.

Affixation is the process of adding one or more affixes to the root morpheme in order to get a new word. Affixes can be divided into: prefixes (they occur before the root of a word), suffixes (occur after the root of a word) and infixes (they occur within the root of a word). With the help of these affixes a significant number of new coinages occurred in Modern English (Crystal 1995).

From the etymological point of view, according to Antrushina (1999), affixes are classified into two groups: native and borrowed affixes.

Native suffixes include : noun-forming: -er (worker, teacher), -ness (loneliness, weightlessness), - ing (meaning, dancing), -dom (freedom, kingdom), -hood (childhood, motherhood), -ship (friendship, companionship), -th (length, wealth); adjective-forming: -ful (wonderful, peaceful), -less (careless, sleepless), -y (funny, cozy), -ish ( English, childish), -ly (lonely, ugly), -en (golden, silken), -some (tiresome, handsome); verb- forming: -en (widen, redden, sadden); adverb-forming: -ly (hardly, simply, angrily).

Borrowed affixes include: from Latin: for nouns: -ion (communion, opinion), -ate (create, appreciate), -ct (act, conduct), -tion (relation, revolution), dis- (disable, disagree); for adjectives: -able (detestable), -ate (accurate, graduate), -ant (arrogant, constant), -or (major, junior), -al (final, maternal), - ar (lunar, familiar) and from French: for nouns: -ance (endurance, arrogance), -ence (consequence, patience), -ment (appointment, development), -age (marriage, village), -ess (lioness, actress); for adjectives: -ous (curious, dangerous); for verbs: en- (enable, enact).

Besides, there are productive affixes: (for example: -ise (realize), -ed (learned), - able, -less, -ly, -ate, un- (unhappy), re- , dis- (disappoint), -ism (materialism), -ist (impressionist), -er, -ing, -ness) and non-productive affixes (for example:-th, -hood, -ly, -some, -ous, -en ) affixes.

Compounding.

Compounding or word-composition is a type of word-building, in which coinages are produced by combining two or more stems. It is one of the most productive and important types of word-formation in Modern English. Examples: dining-room, blackbird, sunflower, bedroom, bluebell, mother-in-law, good-for-nothing.

Antrushina (1999) in her book of lexicology mentions three aspects of composition that present special interest, which are also subdivided into different types and subtypes.

The first is the structural aspect, which consists of compounds: neutral, morphological and syntactic. Neutral compounds contain two stems that are combined without any linking elements (e.g. tallboy, blackbird). These examples have affixless steam, but also, there are derivational compounds that have affixes in their structure (e. g. Blue-eyed, lady-killer, broad-shouldered, music-lover, teenager, babysitter). The last two examples are relatively recent formations. The majority of nonce-words are coined on this pattern that shows us high productivity of this word-forming type. The third type of neutral compounds is contracted compounds. The main peculiarity is in their shortened stem in the word structure (e.g. TV-set (-program, -show, -channel, etc.), G- man (Government man "FBI agent"), H-bag (handbag), T-shirt, etc.). In morphological compounds two stems are combined together by a linking element: a consonant or a vowel (e. g. Anglo-Saxon, Franko-Prussian, handiwork, handicraft, craftsmanship, spokesman and etc.). They are few in number. Finally, syntactic compounds are formed from different parts of speech (nouns, verbs, articles, prepositions, adverbs) as they occur together in phrases: such as in the nouns lily-of-the-valley, good-for-nothing, mother-in-law, sit-at-home, pick-me-up, know-all, know-nothing, go-between, get- together. This type is very important in productivity of new words and is large in number.

The second is the semantic aspect that divides into three groups: 1) compounds which meaning is understandable from the sum of their composite meaning (e.g. classroom, bedroom, working-man, dining-room, sleeping-car, reading-room, dancing- hall); 2) compounds where one or two of words components have changed their meanings (e.g. blackboard, blackbird, football, lady-killer, good-for-nothing, lazybones); 3) compounds with irreversibly lost meaning (e.g. ladybird is - not a bird, but an insect, tallboy not a boy but a piece of furniture, bluestocking is a person, bluebottle may denote both a flower and an insect but never a bottle).

The third and final aspect is the theoretical aspect - the criteria that distinguishes compounds from word-combination. For example, a tall boy is a word-combination, while a tallboy, which is originated from the first one, is a compound. Moreover, they are different in meaning: the word-group a tall boy denotes: 1. a young male person; 2. big in size, whereas the word tallboy expresses one concept - a piece of furniture (Antrushina 1999).

Conversion.

Conversion is the way of making a new word from an already existing word by changing the category of part of speech without any additional affixes. Mainly change such parts of speech as: nouns, adjectives, and verbs - primarily the verbs that come from nouns and the nouns that come from verbs (Crystal 1995).

Ingo Plag (2003) provides some examples of words which are made by means of conversion. These words are derivationally related and are completely identical in their phonetics.

A. the bottle - to bottle; the hammer - to hammer; the file - to file; the skin - to skin; the water - to water.

B. to call-a call; to dump-a dump; to guess-a guess; to jump-a jump; to spy-a spy.

C. better -to better; empty -to empty; hip -to hip; open- to open; rustproof -to rustproof.

D. poor -the poor; rich -the rich; well-fed -the well-fed; blind -the blind; sublime- the sublime.

As can be seen, different types of conversion can be distinguished, in particular noun to verb (A), verb to noun (B), adjective to verb (C), and adjective to noun (D). Of course, there are other types which are insignificant and which are few in number. These four types are the most important and productive (Plag 2003).

Shortening.

Shortening (Contraction) is the process of forming a word from the initial elements of a word combination (for example: flu, lab, B.B.C, U.F.O, V-day).

Shortenings are produced in two ways. New word can be made from a syllable or two syllables of the original words - that is the first way. Here the word may lose its beginning, ending or both the beginning and ending. There are some examples: phone made from telephone, hols from holidays, vac from vacation, fridge from refrigerator.

The second way of shortening is initial shortenings. It means that a new word is made from the initial letters: B.B.C. from the British Broadcasting Corporation, M.P. from Member of Parliament. It can be applied not only with formal words but, also, with colloquialisms and slang. So, g. f. is a shortened word made from the compound girl-friend (Antrushina 1999).

Clipping.

Clipping is the way of shortening, realised by clipping off some part of a word, and removing the rest, with the result that the word acquires some linguistic value of its own (for example: phone from telephone, plane from airplane, flu from influenza). In this process not only words can be shortened but also whole phrases (for example: zoo is made from zoological gardens). In that case, a new obtained word is not really new as it is a stylistic option of already existing word.

More examples of clipping are: ad < advertisement, condo < condominium, demo < demonstration, disco < discotheque, fax < telefax, lab < laboratory, photo < photography, prof < professor (Minkova &Stockwell 2009).

Blending.

Blending is a type of both shortening and compounding where two or more words are combined together into a new one, removing some parts from one or both words.

Ingo Plag (2003) in his book Word-formation distinguishes two types of blends. In the first type compounds are shortened in order to form a new word where the first element modifies the second. Therefore, a breath analyzer means a kind of analyzer (not a kind of breath), a motor camp is a kind of camp (not a kind of motor), etc. Examples are: breath + analyzer = breathalyzer, motor + camp = mocamp, motor + hotel = motel, science + fiction = sci-fi. In comparison with the first type, the basic words of the second type are usually not confirmed as compounds in their full form. Moreover, they denote objects that possess and share estates of both elements. Thus, a boatel means both a boat and a hotel, a brunch means either breakfast or lunch. More examples: boom + hoist = boost, channel + tunnel = chunnel, compressor + expander = compander, goat + sheep = geep, guess + estimate = guesstimate, modulator + demodulator = modem, sheep + goat = shoat, smoke + fog = smog, Spanish + English = Spanglish (Plag 2003).

Alphabetism.

Alphabetism is abbreviation which is expression and pronounced exactly as alphabetic names of the letters (Algeo 1991). For example, in the US, taxes are paid to the IRS (Internal Revenue Service), driver's formed from the initial letters of each part of an licenses are issued by the DMV (Division of Motor Vehicles). Other examples: NBC (National Broadcasting Company), ABC (American Broadcasting Company), and CBS (Columbia Broadcasting System) ( Minkova &Stockwell 2009).

Acronyms.

Acronyms are special types of shortening that also are made of initial letters from each of several words. The main difference from alphabetism is pronunciation which is following the rules of English orthography (Algeo 1991).

If the newly created word is pronounced as any other English word it can be consider as a true acronym. Some examples: ASCII (pronounced [ass-key]) (American Standard Code for Information Interchange), NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration), WAC (Women's Army Corps, pronounced to rhyme with lack, sack, Mac), SHAPE (Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe), NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization, pronounced to rhyme with Cato). In some cases we take not only the initial sounds, but the first consonant and the first vowel together as well. So, the word radar comes from radio detecting and ranging; sonar is from sound navigation (and) ranging; modem was formed from modulator-demodulator. When an acronym becomes accepted by a significant number of people often it's spelling changes into lower-case letters, like in modem and radar (Minkova &Stockwell 2009).

Sound-imitation.

Sound-Imitation is a word-formation process that consists of imitation of different kinds of sounds which are produced by animals, humans, birds, insects and inanimate objects (Antrushina 1999). Sound imitating or onomatopoeic words are echoes of natural sounds. Thus, they are based on a phonetical use of a word; that means in what way sound is heard, more or less in the same way it is pronounced. However, it is wrong to believe that all sounds directly reflect the real sounds , due to the fact that in different languages they are performed in different ways. Furthermore, an action or thing can be named by reproduction of a sound associated with it. For instance words naming sounds and movement of water: babble, blob, bubble, flush, gurgle, gush, splash, etc.

Onomatopoeic words are divided into several groups according to the origin of produced sound: 1) sounds produced by people in communication processes: babble, chatter, giggle, grunt, grumble, murmur, mutter, titter, whine, whisper and many more; 2) sounds produced by animals, birds and insects, e.g. buzz, cackle, croak, crow, hiss, honk, howl, moo, mew, neigh, purr, roar and others; 3) some birds names are similar with the sound they make, these are the crow, the cuckoo, the whippoor-will and the other; 4) the verbs that imitate the sound of water such as bubble or splash; verbs that imitate the noise of metallic things: clink, tinkle, or forceful motion: clash, crash, whack, whip, whisk, etc. (Arnold 1986).

Back-formation.

Back-formation or reversion is a word-formation process in which shorter words are derived from longer words by removing imagined affixes. At first sight we can say that the word editor comes from edit, whereas the noun appeared in the language first. The same situation is with television, double-glazing, baby-sitter - all these words preceded televise, double-glaze, baby- sit (Crystal 1995).

I. V. Arnold (1986) in his book of Lexicology of Modern English tells us about some examples which show that back-formation may be also based on the analogy of inflectional forms.

Pea (the plural of which is peas and also pease) is from ME pese<OE pise, peose<Lat pisa, pl. of pesum. The ending -s being the most frequent mark of the plural in English, English speakers thought that sweet peas(e) was a plural and turned the combination peas(e) soup into pea soup. Cherry is from OFr cerise, and the -se was dropped for exactly the same reason.” (Arnold 1986:151).

In Modern English the most productive type of back-formation is derivation of verbs from compounds that have such elements as: -er, - ing at the end. Examples: thought- read v<thought-reader n<thought-reading n; air-condition v<air-conditioner n < air- conditioning n; turbo-supercharge v < turbo-supercharger n. Other examples of back- formations from compounds are: beachcomb, house-break, house-clean, house-keep, red-bait, tape-record (Arnold 1986:151).

Reduplication.

In this type of word-formation new words are formed by doubling the stem of a word. A new word can be formed in two ways: 1) without any phonetic changes (bye-bye for good-bye), 2) with a modification of the root-vowel or consonant that is also called gradational reduplication (ping-pong, chit-chat). A vast number of new words, which are made by reduplication - are used in informal style: colloquial words and slang. Other examples: walkie-talkie ("a portable radio"), riff-raff ("the worthless or disreputable element of society"; "the dregs of society"), chi-chi (sl. for chic as in a chi- chi girl) (Antrushina 1999).

1.5 Types of Neologisms

V.I. Zabotkina in her book Новая лексика современного англии?ского языка (1989) highlights three types of neologisms on the basis of their form and content: 1) neologisms itself where novelty of the form perfectly combined with novelty of the content: audiotyping аудиопечатание; bio-computer компьютер, имитирующии? нервную систему живых организмов; thought-processor компьютер, логически выстраивающии? и развивающии? идеи; 2) words that combine novelty of the form with the meaning that have already indulged in another form before: sudser мыльная опера; big С (мед.) рак; Af, houtie негр; 3) semantic innovations where the new value denotes by the form that already exists in the language: bread деньги; drag скучища; acid наркотик ЛСД; gas нечто волнующее и очень приятное (Zabotkina 1989).

Regarding the style, Galperin (1981) distinguishes three types of newly coined words. The first one is terminological coinages or terminological neologisms - those which designate new-born notions. The second type is stylistic coinages, - words coined by people who look for expressive statements. The third type is the nonce-words - these words are created only to serve the particular occasion and do not live long. As for example in: “Let me say in the beginning that even if I wanted to avoid Texas I could not, for I am wived in Texas, and mother-in-lawed, and uncled, and aunted, and cousined within an inch of my life.” (J.Steinbeck). As (Galperin, 1981:102) comments, “The past participles mother-in-lawed, uncled, aunted and cousined are coined for the occasion on the analogy of wived and can hardly be expected to be registered by English dictionaries as ordinary English words”.

Ginzburg in his book “A course in modern English lexicology” makes analysis of the development of the vocabulary of Modern English, which shows that there are two aspects of the growth of the language -- the appearance of new lexical items, which increase the vocabulary numerically, and the appearance of new meanings of old words.

New vocabulary items in Modern English belong only to the notional parts of speech, to be more exact, only to nouns, verbs and adjectives; of these nouns are most numerous.

The analysis shows that out of the 498 new units under consideration 373 (i.e. about 75%) are nouns and nominal word-groups, 61 (or about 12%) are adjectives and only 1 (or 0,25%) adverbs. The counts conducted in recent years give an approximately the same ratio -- out of 122 new units 82 (i. e. 67%) are nouns, 22 (or 18%) are verbs, 18 (i. e. about 14%) are adjectives and only one (0,8%) adverb.

Structurally new vocabulary items represent two types of lexical units: words, e.g. blackout, microfilm-reader, un-freeze, and word-groups, mostly phraseological units, e.g. blood bank -- `a place where blood plasma are stored'; atomic pile -- `reactor', etc.

Words in their turn comprise various structural types:

a)simple words, e.g. jeep -- `a small, light motor vehicle esp. for military use'; zebra -- 'street crossing-place, marked by black and white stripes';

b)derived words, such as collaborationist -- `one who in occupied territory works* helpfully with the enemy'; centrism -- `a middle-of-the road or a moderate position in polities', a preppie -- `a student or graduate of a preparatory school (sl.)';

c)compounds, e.g. corpsman (mil.) -- `a member of a hospital squad trained to administer first aid to wounded servicemen', script-show -- `a serial program on radio and television'; house-husband -- U.S. `a married man who manages a household', etc. The analysis of new words for their derivational structure shows a marked predominance of derived and compound words and a rather small number of simple words.

Word-groups comprise a considerable part of vocabulary extension. Structurally, the bulk of the word-groups belongs to the attributive-nominal type built on the A + N and N + N formulas, e.g. frequency modulation, jet engine, total war, Common Marketeer, machine time, etc.

Word-groups and different types of words are unequally distributed among various lexical stylistic groups of the vocabulary, with a predominance of one or another type in every group. For example, new words in the field of science are mostly of derived and compound structure but the technical section of the vocabulary extension is characterised by simple words. The greater part of word-groups is found among scientific and technical terms; the political layer of vocabulary is rather poor in word-groups. Besides this peculiar distribution of different types of words, every type acquires its own specific peculiarity in different lexical stylistic groups of the vocabulary, for example, although derived words are typical both of scientific and technical terms, words formed by conversion are found mostly among technical terms.

According to Peter Newmark and his book “A Textbook of Translation” there are two existing lexical items with new senses and ten types of neologisms that are classified by their formation. In general he distinguishes twelve types of neologisms.

They are:

Old words with new sense - old words that acquire new meaning; these words usually do not relate to new objects or processes that is why they cannot be connected with technology. For instance a word revoulement means `return of refugee'; it can be also used for `refusal of entry' and `deportation'. In psychology this word denotes `repression'. Therefore, it is a loose term, the understanding of which depends on its context. (Newmark 1988).

The term `gay' appears to have been deliberately used by homosexual to emphasise their normality. Possibly when homosexuality loses al its negative connotations, there will be no need for this sense of `gay' but it is likely to stay - it has gone into French and German as gay. You cannot go back in language - a colloquial term is not usually replaced by a formal term. To sum up, old words with new senses tend to be non-cultural and non-technical.

Collocations with new meanings - collocations that eventually changed their meanings; the collocations, which exist, may be cultural as well as non-cultural. There is commonly a recognized translation if the concept is in the Today's language. In case if the concept does not exist or people are not familiar with it yet, descriptive information has to be given. (E.g., 'tug-of-love'). Existing collocations with new senses are difficult to translate: usually these are `normal' descriptive terms which suddenly become technical terms; their meaning sometimes hides innocently behind a more general or figurative meaning.

Ex. `unsocial hours'

`high-rise'.

`real-time' (computers).

In linguistics, a collocation is typically denned as the 'habitual co-occurrence of individual lexical items' (Crystal).

There are the most common collocation types. All three are centered in the noun, the second component (collocate) of the collocation.

1) Adjective plus noun.

(a) 'heavy labour,

(b) 'runaway (galloping) inflation,

(c) 'economic situation,

(d) 'inflationary pressure',

(2) N'oun plus noun (i.e., double-noun compound)

(a) 'government securities',

(b) 'eyeball.

(3) Verb plus object, which is normally a noun that denotes an action, as in *read a paper.

(a) 'pay a visit',

(b) 'score (win),

(c) 'reada(n) (academic) paper',

(d) 'attend a lecture'.

The most common collocations Peter Newmark has mentioned - Some verbs, say, (satisfy', 'appease), collocate physically with animate (person, patient, hungry wolf), figuratively with abstract (desires, passions, greed, anger, etc.) objects. A few verbs ('work hard, 'deeply regret', 'devoutly hope') and adjectives ('profoundly unnecessary, 'immensely disturbing, 'totally wrong', 'desperately unhappy', etc.) are collocated with adverbs, many of which degenerate into disposable clichйs.

New coinages - It is a well-known hypothesis that there is no such thing as a brand new word; if a word does not derive from various morphemes then it is more or less phonaesthetic or synacsthetic. All sounds or phonemes are phonaesthetic, have some kind of meaning. mainly brand or trade names. The best-known exception to the hypothesis is the internationalism 'quark', coined by James Joyce in Finnegan's Wake (the word exists in German with another sense), a fundamental particle in physics. The computer term 'byte', sometimes spelt 'bite1, is also an internationalism, the origin of the V being obscure. Both these words have phonaesthetic qualities- quark is humorously related to 'quack'. Nowadays, the main new coinages are brand or trade names ('Bisto', 'Bacardi', 4Schweppes' (onomatopoeic), Tersil, 'Oxo1).

Derived words - The great majority of neologisms are words derived by analogy from ancient Greek (increasingly) and Latin morphemes usually with suffixes such as -ismo, -ismus, -ija, etc., naturalised in the appropriate language. This word-forming procedure is employed mainly to designate (non-cultural) scientific and technological rather than cultural institutional terms; the advance of these internationalisms is widespread. Normally, they have naturalised suffixes.

In all derived words, you have to distinguish between terms like ecosysteme and ecotone which have a solid referential basis, and fulfill the conditions of internationalisms and those like 'ecofreak' and ecotage (sabotage of ecology).

Abbreviation - common type of pseudo-neologisms. The main feature of abbreviation is that we have to pronounce each letter individually. Examples: CD (compact disc or certificate of deposit), ER (emergency room), and PC (personal computer or politically correct).

Clipped abbreviations such as prof for professor, fax for facsimile, and photo op for photographic are known in common use. There are also orthographic abbreviations such as Dr. (doctor), Mr. (mister), Az (Arizona), and MB (megabyte), where the spelling of a word has been shortened but its pronunciation is not (necessarily) altered.

Collocations - are widespread especially in the social sciences and in computer fields. Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary of Current English (1974) defines collocation as grouping together or arrangement, esp. of words. New collocations (noun compounds or adjective plus noun) are particularly common in the social sciences and in computer language. Thus "lead time, "sexual harassment', 'domino effect', fuite en avamy 'clawback',l cold-calling1, 'Walkman (brand name for 'personal stereo*), 'acid rain\ 'norm reference testing', 'criterion reference testing1, 'rate-capping', 'jetlag\ 'lateral thinking, 'wishful thinking, etc.

'Sexual harassment' is a universal concept, at least in any culture where there is both greater sexual freedom and a powerful women's movement. 'Lead time, a term for the time between design and production or between ordering and delivery of a product, has at present to be translated in context; 'domino effect', which could be a (political) universal, applying as much to the USSR as to El Salvador or Vietnam; 'sunrise industries1 refers to electronics and other 'high-tech' industries.

Eponyms - P. Newmark defines an 'eponym' as any word that is identical with or derived from a proper name (therefore including toponyms), which gives it a related sense. When derived from people's names such words ('Audenesque', 'Keynesian', 'Laurentian', 'Hallidayan, lJoycean 'Leavisite') tend to rise and fall depending on the popularity or vogue of their referent and ease of composition.

Such generalised eponyms as 'Parkinson's Law* (work, personnel, etc. expands to fill the time, space, etc. allotted to it), 'Murphy's* or 'Sod's Law' (if something can go wrong, it will) have to be 'reduced' to sense.

New eponyms deriving from geographical names (the tasteless 'bikini' has not been repeated) appear to be rare - most commonly they originate from the products (wines, cheeses, sausages etc) of the relevant area.

Phrasal words - New 'phrasal words' are restricted to English's facility in converting verbs to nouns (e.g., work-out, 'trade-off, 'check-out, (dans, supermarkets), 'lookalike\ 'thermal cut-out', *knock*on (domino) effect1, laid-back', 'sit-in').

Transferred words -Newly transferred words keep only one sense of their foreign nationality; they are the words whose meanings are least dependent on their contexts. (Later, if they are frequently used, they change or develop additional senses). They are likely to be 'media' or 'product' rather than technological neologisms, and, given the power of the media, they may be common to several languages, whether they are cultural or have cultural overlaps (samizdat, nomenklatura, apparatchik, cf. refusnik, apparat). Newly imported foodstuffs, clothes ('cagoule', 'Adidas', 'Gallini', *sari\ 'Levi', 'Wrangler'), processes Ctandoori'), cultural manifestations (*raga*, *kung fu).

Acronyms - Acronyms are an increasingly common feature of all non-literary texts, for reasons of brevity or euphony, and often to give the referent an artificial prestige to rouse people to find out what the letters stand for. In science the letters are occasionally joined up and become internationalisms (*laser\ 'maser'). They tend to be short and euphonious; acronyms attract our attention and interest in case if we do not know the meaning. So, they make us find out what the letters stand for. The words radar and laser are acronyms: each of the letters that spell the word is the first letter (or letters) of some other complete word. For example, radar derives from radio detecting and ranging and laser derives from light amplification (by) stimulated emission (of) radiation. It is important to note that even though such words are originally created as acronyms, speakers quickly forget such origins and the acronyms become new independent words. The world of computers offers a wealth of acronyms.

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