The theoretical aspects of using lexical models as a means of intensification of training monologue speech at the upper-intermediate level

Specific purpose:

To inform my audience about the development and benefits of hydrogen fuel cells.

Central Idea:

Developed as a highly efficient form of energy, hydrogen fuel cells use sophisticated technology and offer a number of economic and environmental benefits.

Main Points:

a) Hydrogen fuel cells were developed to provide a highly efficient form of energy.

b) Hydrogen fuel cells produce power through an electro-chemical reaction involving hydrogen gas.

c) Hydrogen fuel cells provide an economically and environmentally superior method of powering motor vehicles.

Even if your main points are not stated expressly in your specific purpose, they may be easy to project from it. Let's say you specific point is “To inform the audience of the basic steps in making stained-glass windows.” You know each of your main points will correspond to a step in the windows making process. They might look like this outline form:

Specific Purpose:

To inform my audience of the basic steps in making stained-glass windows.

Central Idea:

There are four steps in making stained-glass windows.

Main Points:

a) The first step is designing the window.

b) The second step is cutting the glass to fit the design.

c) The third step is painting the glass.

d) The fourth step is assembling the window.

e) The main points will not always be so easy to be settled. Often they will emerge as you research the speech and evaluate your findings. Suppose your specific purpose is “To persuade the listeners that our country should not approve proposals for online voting.” You know that each main point in the speech will present a reason why online voting should not be instituted in your country. But you are not sure how many main points there will be or what they will be. As you research and study the topic, you decide there are two major reasons to support your view. Each of these reasons will become a main point in your speech. Written in outline form they might be:

Specific Purpose:

To persuade my audience that our country should not approve proposals for online voting.

Central Idea:

Our country should not approve online voting because it will increase voter fraud and disfranchise people without Internet access.

Main Points:

a) Our country should not approve online voting because it will increase voter fraud.

b) Our country should not approve online voting because it will disfranchise people without access to the Internet.

Number of Main Points.

To make the best out of your speech, you have to develop two main points at least, and mostly it should contain two or three, but as well four main points is also acceptable by the audience. But if you have too many main points you may face trouble with your audience sorting it out.

If, when you list your main points, you find that you have too many, you may be able to condense them into categories. Here is a set of main points for a speech about yoga:

Specific Purpose:

To inform my audience about the practical use of yoga.

Central Idea:

Yoga is an ancient practice that involves the whole body.

Main Points:

a) Yoga breathing starts with deep inhalation.

b) Yoga breathing requires slow exhalation.

c) Yoga breathing includes prolonged pauses.

d) Yoga breathing provides many benefits.

e) Yoga postures involve all parts of the body.

f) Yoga postures increase flexibility.

g) Yoga postures strengthen muscle tone.

You have seven main points - which is too many. But if you look at the list, you can see that the eight points fall into two broad categories: yoga breathing and yoga postures. You might, therefore, restate your main points this way.

One part of practicing yoga involves proper breathing.

Another part of yoga involves body postures [63].

Strategic order of Main Points.

Once you establish your main points, you need to decide the order in which you will present them. The most effective order depends on three things - your topic, your purpose, and the audience you are going to address. Now we are going to look at the five basic patterns of organization which I think are the most effective and easy to understand, use and are flexible to use with different types of speeches for the students of high school.

1. Chronological Order.

Speeches arranged chronologically follow a time pattern. They may narrate a series of events in sequence in which they happened. For example:

Specific Purpose:

To inform my audience how the Great Wall of China was built.

Central Idea:

The Great Wall of China was built in three major stages.

Main Points:

a) Building of the Great Wall began during the Qin dynasty of 221-206 B.C.

b) New section of Great Wall were added during the Han dynasty of 206 B.C.-220 A.D.

The Great Wall was completed during the Ming dynasty of 1368-1644 [63].

Chronological order is also used in speeches explaining a process of demonstrating how to do something. For example:

Specific Purpose: To inform my audience of the steps in laser-assisted corrective eye surgery.

Central Idea:

There are three main steps in laser-assisted corrective eye surgery.

Main Points:

a) First, a thin layer is sliced off the surface of the eye to expose the cornea.

b) Second, an ultraviolet laser is used to reshape the cornea.

c) Third, the thin layer sliced off at the beginning if the surgery reaffixed to the eye [63].

N.B. Chronological order is especially useful for informative speeches.

2. Spatial Order.

Speeches arranged in spatial order follow a directional pattern. That is, the main points proceed from top to bottom, from east to west, from right to left, inside to outside or some other route. For example:

Specific Purpose: To inform my audience about the structure of a hurricane.

Central Idea: A hurricane is made up of three parts going from inside to outside.

Main Points:

a) At the center of a hurricane is the calm, cloud-free eye.

b) Surrounding the eye is the eyewall, a dense ring of clouds that produces the most intense wind rainfall.

c) Rotating around the eyewall are large bands of clouds and precipitation called spiral rain bands.

Or:

Specific Purpose: To inform my audience about the four major countries on the British Isles.

Central Idea: England, Wales, Scotland and Ireland have their own identities and attractions.

Main Points:

a) England - the country of historical treasures.

b) Wales - the country of mountains.

c) Scotland - the home and land of golf.

d) Ireland - the country of arts and literature.

Spatial order, like chronological order, is used most often in informative speeches.

3. Casual Order.

Speeches arranged in casual order organize main points so as to show a cause-effect relationship. When a speech is put in casual order, there will be two main points - one dealing with the causes of an event, the other dealing with its effects. Depending on the topic, the first main point may be devoted to causes, the second to the effects respectively, or vice versa.

Let's suppose the specific purpose of the speech is “To persuade that a growing amount of polluted air in Oskemen is a more serious problems for its citizens than it is stated by the Government.” Then you would begin with the causes of air pollution and work towards its effects and solution ways:

Specific Purpose: To persuade that a growing amount of polluted air in Oskemen is a more serious problems for its citizens than it is stated by the Government.

Central Idea: The growing amount of polluted air in Oskemen endangers the health of its citizens.

Main Points:

a) The city of Oskemen faces a growing air pollution each year.

b) Polluted air in Oskemen is growing due to the city?s large manufacture industry.

c) If the air pollution continues to enlarge, it will have an extremely bad consequences for the citizens of the city [61].

When talking about the facts which already took place and cannot be changed, there is only a cause-effect relationship - as in the speech about the Kazakh Khanate:

Specific Purpose: To inform my audience about the possible causes for the collapse of Kazakh Khanate.

Central Idea: The causes for the collapse of Kazakh Khanate have not been fully explained.

Main Points:

a)Kazakh Khanate flourished for IV centuries until 1800s A.D., when it began to disintegrate.

b)Scholars have advanced three major explanations for the causes of this disintegration [62].

For its versatility, causal order can be used for a type of speech to persuade the listeners, which is called a persuasive speech, or just give information on the topic of your speech, which is called informative speech.

4. Problem-Solution Order.

Speeches arranged in problem-solution order are divided into two main parts. The first shows the existence of a problem and seriousness of a problem. The second presents a workable solution to the problem. For example:

Specific Purpose: To persuade my audience that action is needed to combat the legislation of homosexual matrimony in Kazakhstan.

Central Idea: Legislation of homosexual matrimony is a serious problem due to our cultural peculiarities and mental understanding of homosexuality.

Main Points:

a) Homosexual matrimony may lead to riots in different parts of Kazakhstan.

b) Solving this problems needs the attention of the government and votes of the citizens against it.

Or:

Specific Purpose: To persuade my audience that underpayment of teachers is a serious problem in Kazakhstan.

Central Idea: Teachers in Kazakhstan are underpaid and this may lead to serious consequences such as a poor educated generation and a bad future of our country.

Main Points:

a) The underpayment of teachers is a serious problem in Kazakhstan because the amount of money the teachers receive does not meet their needs.

b) The problem can be solved with the help of the citizens, by repeatedly reminding the government of an existing serious problem.

c) As these examples indicate, problem-solution order is most appropriate for persuasive speeches.

5. Topical Order.

Topical order results when you divide the speech topic into subtopics, each of which becomes a main point in the speech. Suppose your specific purpose is To inform my audience of the major kinds of fireworks. This topic does not lend itself to chronological, spatial, causal, or problem-solution order. Rather, you separate the subject - kinds of fireworks - into its constituent parts, so that each main point deals with a single kind of fireworks. Your central idea and main points might look like this:

Specific Purpose: To inform my audience of the major kinds of fireworks.

Central Idea: The major kinds of fireworks are skyrockets, Roman candles, pinwheels, and lances.

Main Points:

a) Skyrockets explode high in the air, producing the most dramatic effects of all fireworks.

b) Roman candles shoot out separate groups of sparks and colored flames with a series of booming noises.

c) Pinwheels throw off sparks and flames as they whirl on the end of a stick [28, p.18].

4. Lances are thin, colorful fireworks used in ground displays.

To take another example, let?s say the specific purpose is “To inform my audience about the achievements of Shokan Ualikhanov.” Shokan Ualikhanov, a Kazakh scholar who lived at the turn of the 19th century, was an outspoken champion of social and political justice for his nation. The speech could be organized chronologically - by discussing Shokan?s exploits during each decade of his career. On the other hand, the speech could be arranged topically - by dividing Shokan?s accomplishments into categories. Then the central idea and main points might be:

Specific Purpose: To inform my audience about the achievements of Shokan Ualikhanov.

Central Idea: Shokan Ualikhanov was a great Kazakh scientist, historian, ethnographer, geographer, educator, democrat.

Main Points:

a) As a geographer, Shokan gathered orientological, collections, studied the flora and fauna of Zhetysu and the surrounding area of Issyk Kul.

b) As an educator, Shokan Ualikhanov taught Turkic languages in higher school of the Asian Department together with I.I. Zakharov.

c) As a historian, Shokan wrote a work entitled “Genealogy of Kazakhs”, based on the works of Abylgazy “Shaibani-name”,“Shezhre-at-Turk” the theoretical value of which is high [67].

Notice how the main points subdivide the speech topic logically and consistently. Each main point isolates one aspect of Shokan Ualikhanov?s achievements. But suppose the main points look like this:

a)As a geographer, Shokan gathered orientological, entomological collections, studied the flora and fauna of Zhetysu and the surrounding area of Issyk Kul.

b) As an educator, Shokan Ualikhanov taught Turkic languages in higher school of the Asian Department together with I.I. Zakharov.

c) Shokan returned to his native land in spring 1861, due to the progression of the disease (tuberculosis).

This would not be a good topical order because main point III is inconsistent with the rest of the main points. It deals with a period in Shokan Ualikhanov?s life, whereas main points I and II deal with kinds of activism.

These are the main organizational orders of the body. But there are some more points to consider about the body of the speech.

Each main point in a speech should be clearly independent of the others.

The same pattern of wording could be used for main points as in the example above.

The amount of time devoted to main points should be balanced. This means allowing sufficient time to develop each main point.

Supporting Materials - by themselves, main points are only assertions. Listeners need supporting materials to accept what a speaker says. Supporting materials are the materials to support a speaker?s ideas. The three major kinds of supporting materials are examples, statistics, and testimony.

Connective - is a word or a phrase that connects the ideas of a speech and indicates the relationship between them. Without connectives, a speech is disjointed and uncoordinated - much as a person would be without ligaments and tendons to join the bones and hold the organs in place. Four types of connectives are transitions, internal previews, internal summaries, and signposts.

Transitions - are words or phrases that indicate when a speaker has just completed one thought and is moving to another. Technically, the transitions state both the idea the speaker is leaving and the idea he or she is coming up to. In the following examples, the transitions are in italic:

Now that we have a clear understanding of the problem, let me share the solution with you.

I have spoken so far of bravery and patriotism, but it is the sacrifice of our granddads and grandmothers that makes us live in peace and freedom.

Keeping these points in mind about sign language, let?s return to the sentence I started with and see if we can learn the signs for “You are my friend”.

Notice how these phrases remind the listener of the thought just completed, as well as reveal the thought about to be developed.

Internal previews - let the audience know what the speaker will take up next, but they are more detailed than transitions. In effect, an internal preview works just like the preview statement in a speech introduction, except that it comes in the body of the speech - usually as the speaker is starting to discuss a main point [41, pp.90]. For example:

In discussing how gays and lesbians are discriminated in our society, we?ll look first at the origins of the problem and second at its continuing impact today.

After hearing this, the audience knows exactly what are they going to listen to as the speaker develops the “problem” main point.

Internal previews are often combined with transitions. For example:

(Transition): Now that we have seen how faulty credit reports is, let?s look at some solutions.(Internal Preview): I will focus on three solutions - instituting tighter government regulation of credit bureaus, holding credit bureaus financially responsible for their errors, and giving individuals easier access to their credit reports.

An internal preview is not a must for each main point in the speech, but it?s very helpful if you think it will help listeners keep track of your ideas.

Internal summaries - are the reverse of internal previews. Rather than letting listeners know what is coming up next, internal summaries remind listeners of what they have just heard. Such summaries remind listeners of what they have just heard. Such summaries are used when a speaker finishes a complicated or particularly important main point or set of main points [41, pp.93].. For example:

In short, palm reading is an ancient art. Developed in China more than five thousand years ago, it was practiced in classical Greece and Rome, flourished during the Middle Ages, survived in industrial revolution, and remains popular today in many parts of the world.

Internal summaries are an excellent way to clarify and reinforce ideas. By combining them with transitions, you can also smoothly lead your audience into the next main point of your speech.

These were the overall instructions in organizing the body part of the speech. And only the conclusion part is left. Now let?s move on and discuss the organization of the “Conclusion part of the speech”.

1.2.2.3 The Conclusion part of a monologue speech

The final impression is such a thing that will linger in the listener?s minds. “Great is the art of beginning,” said Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, “but greater is the art of ending.” Longfellow told these words about poetry, but his insight is equally applicable to speeches as well. Thus, the conclusion part should be crafted with as much care as the introduction. No matter what the topic or the type of the speech is, the conclusion part has two main functions[67]:

1. To let the audience know the speech is about to end.

2. To reinforce the audience?s understanding of, or commitment to, the central idea.

Signal the end of the speech.

It may seem obvious that the conclusion parts indicates letting your audience know you are going to stop soon. However, it is a common mistake that people make while speaking about certain subjects, concluding so abruptly that you may be taken by surprise. Too sudden an ending leaves the audience puzzled and surprised.

How to let the audience know that your speech is ending? One way is through what you say. “In conclusion”, “My purpose has been”, “Let me end by saying” - these are all brief cues that will let the listeners know you are going to stop. There are also transitions for summarizing the speech. They are:

(Simple)

After all

All in all

All things considered

Briefly

By and large

In any case

In any event

In brief

In coclusion

On the whole

In summary

In the final analysis

In the long run

To sum up

To summarize

Finally

(More Complicated)

Having told all this, I would like to end by saying...

In this speech, my purpose has been...

As my time with you is coming to its end, the same as my speech...

Let me end by saying...

In the end, I would like you to know that...

I had a great pleasure sharing this all with you and...

My last words about this are that...

And in the end, I deeply feel my duty to tell you that...

As you have been all sitting here to this very end, I would like to let you know that...

So, everything said was of much of importance for me as I hope is the same for you...

What I was hoping you to know is...

Reinforcing the central idea

The above were the transition words and phrases to help you conclude the speech. But there are as well other ways of summarizing the same as introducing the speech. And reinforcing the audience's understanding of, or commitment to, the central idea is the second major function of a conclusion. Here are the most effective ways to do this:

a) Summarizing your speech.

Restating the main points is the easiest way to end a speech. One student used this technique effectively in his speech about the AIDS epidemic in Africa:

In conclusion, we have seen that the AIDS epidemic is having a devastating effect on African society. An entire adult generation is slowly being wiped out. An entirely new generation of AIDS orphans is being created. Governments in the nations most afflicted have neither the resources nor the expertise to counter the epidemic. Many African economies are being crippled by loss of people in the workplace.

Before it?s too late, the United Nations and developed countries need to increase their efforts to halt the epidemic and bring it under control. The lives and well-beings of tens of millions of people hang in the balance.

Thank you for your attention!

The value of a summary is that it explicitly restates the central idea and main points one last time. But as we shall see, there are a lot of imaginative and compelling ways to end a speech.

The transition words and phrases for summarizing the speech have been mentioned above so I do not think there is a need to mention them again. Let us move to the next point of reinforcing the central idea.

b) Making a dramatic statement.

Using a dramatic statement to final your speech gives the conclusion force and power. And it is also not as difficult as you may think for the students of 9-11 grades. This method of ending the speech is used to stun the listeners, and to empower their impression of the main points that were discussed in the body part of the monologue speech. For example, let us imagine a situation where a student will be talking about patriotism:

All in all, what I wanted to say to all of you, my dear friends, that it is us, who should imbue a bright future for the nations of our beloved Kazakhstan, that it is us, who should stand for its economic and political stability, that it is us, who should keep the peace among all nations in this holy country, and that it is us who should prepare a stable and peaceful Kazakhstan for our descendants the same way like our ancestors gave their lives so that we could live in peace and friendship.

Would not this kind of conclusion be impressive? I think it would be hugely impressive and would courage the other students who could have been listening to that speech. So I do truly recommend making a dramatic statement to conclude a monologue speech. It is one of the best ways to make the listeners say: “Oh, that was fantastic”.

c) Referring to the introduction.

Referring to the introduction is an excellent way to give your speech the presence of psychological unity. And as well, this may be used to let the listeners recall what was told in the very beginning and thus, they may run through whole the speech and remember some important statements or main points mentioned in the body part for a very long time. For example:

Introduction: The man stands up at five in the morning, has his cup of tea, and goes running for three hours. All these three hours, he runs without stopping. After he finishes, he has a shower and a nice breakfast. Then he goes training. He lifts tons of metal every day and he doesn't say: “Oh, I'm tired. I am too weak to do all this job”. Of course he doesn't. Why would he? He has a goal to become a world champion. To become the best boxer of the world. That is his dream. How do you think, if he continues the same way, would he become a world champion? Yes, I know, the answer is obvious. As obvious as, if you do some things to achieve your goals and worked on them regularly, you will for sure achieve what you want to.

The above is a necessary introduction to show you how effective may referring to the introduction be in some situations while ending the speech. And here is an example of such a conclusion:

Remember the man I was talking about in the very beginning? Yes, a boxer with a dream to become a world champion. I think this won?t be a surprise for all of you, if I say that he finally achieved his dream. You may have a lot of names in your mind, like Mohammed Ali or Mike Tyson. But I want to disappoint you. I was talking about the proud of our country, Gennadii Golovkin. Yes, yes, he is a bright example that a person should have really manly kind of character and not give up at no time. Then, and only then, he will be able to get what he wants. Thank you for your attention!

So the first part of our work has come to an end we have studied the essential theoretical aspects of applying lexical models while teaching a foreign language.

Summary of Part 1

In the first part of this work we have found out that monologue speech is a type of a complicated speech pattern. We have worked with different definitions of different scholars on methodology trying to find out what a “monologue speech” is and have come to a point of view that it is a type of a speech which is more complicated than a message and is characterized by a flow of actions or statistics or facts. The development of a monologue speech needs special attention on the whole period of learning foreign languages.

Also, we have prepared a variety of lexical models to be based on while speaking. And as well, as the word “lexica” which means “word; connected with words; concerning words;” cannot stand alone and should be always accompanied by that of the notion “semantic” which means “meaning; concerning the meaning of a word;” and made - up a Lexica-Semantic Model of a Monologue speech which we believe would be really helpful in intensifying the training of a monologue speech at the schools at the upper-intermediate level.

As of the upper-intermediate level, we have also found out that at that level the students tend to speak more and really like speaking on different global subjects such as the global problems concerning the world or different political topics or the influence of some things on the worlds and etc. So at this level, it is ideal to teach monologue speech and give the students free space to talk and to train their speaking skills, as the spoken language is can only be mastered by practicing it only and even a high level of the students? grammar skills and vocabulary skills cannot help the student to become more fluent at speaking if he or she does not train it appropriately.



2 THE PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF LEXICAL MODELS

2.1 Modern techniques of intensifying the training of students? monologue speech

At the upper - intermediate level of teaching monologue speech, the teacher should first of all, make the students speak out the lexical models. First, the teacher reads the lexical models and tells the students to repeat after him. Thus, the pronunciation of these models would be fixed in their minds for a short time. And so that the students memorize the models, the teacher should give the students some time to make up a small speech to consolidate the information just learned.

T - C - T - C - T - C -T -C...(T - Teacher; C - class;)

This kind of intermediate speaking practice should be carried on for a limited number of lessons only. When a class has been advanced far enough to be ready for more independent speech making, repeating the lexical models in chorus might be eliminated, and exercises which will force students to use the vocabulary which should get fixed in their vocabulary base shall be introduced.

When the students have learned the meanings and the situations where that lexical models should or can be used, they should make up two - three paragraphs using the lexical models just learned. It gives the teacher an opportunity to see whether each of his students understand the meaning of each lexical model correctly.

Thus and so, I want to point out three main important methods of intensifying the monologue speech training. They are the followings:

1. Formation of skills of problem monologue statements on the basis of a fable text.

2. Formation of skills of monologue statements on the basis of gradually coming partial information.

3. Formation of skills of retrospectivvely evaluating the author?s idea within “home - reading”.

Let?s view these methods in a more detailed way. Here is an example lesson based on the formation of monologue skills on the basis of a fable text:

The aim of the lesson is learning the exaltation of the characteristics of the object expression, the development of skills of evaluating, selecting, and grouping the characteristics in accordance with the student?s own opinion. Expressing agreement/disagreement and arguments to support his/her point of view.

Leading operations - selection, structuring, summarizing, mapping.

The structure of a lesson.

The aim of the lesson is to teach you to formulate your point of view and find arguments to support it.

1. Drafting statements of wildcard table. Give your ideas concerning people?s qualities and actions.



Table 2 - A fable text exercise

It?s (un)natural It?s immoral It?s (hardly) necessary It?s quite (im)possible It?s (un)desirable	to deliver lectures from memory. for a teacher to have an excellent memory. for a scientist to be absent-minded. to let others make use of your ideas. to agree with every opinion your teacher expresses

And in these kinds of exercises, transition words used for giving opinions and arguments are used as lexical models. They are:

Table 3 - Transitions for giving opinions and arguments

Expressing opinion	Argument or another point
In my experience… As far as I?m concerned… Speaking for myself… In my opinion… Personally, I think… I?d say that… I?d suggest that… I?d like to point out that… I believe that… What I mean is…	although, but, contradicting, despite (the fact that), however, in contrast, in spite of the fact that, in spite of this, it cannot be reasonably deduced/inferred/assumed from this that, nevertheless, nonetheless, notwithstanding, of course, on the contrary, on the one hand... on the other hand, paradoxically, still, that is, the previous does not imply/demonstrate/show, the apparent implication is that, unfortunately that does not, while it is the case that..., still..., while it may be that, while it may seem that, yet.

2. The creation of a connected initiative replica ( based on a specified point of view) and preparation of polemical response replicas.

Express your attitude to the statements giving an argument or two to explain what you mean. Let your partner respond with one or two other arguments supporting your point of view or opposing it. Don?t exchange your ideas before your turn comes round!

a) Absent-minded people can?t be successful in research.

b) A good memory is absolutely necessary for a teacher.

c) An unscrupulous person can be a good teacher.

d) It?s no use working hard if you have no inborn abilities.

e) Learning things word for word makes a student dull.

3. Characteristics of a fable character of the text based on the selection of personality traits from the list and confirm these facts from the text (“Uncle Theo”).

Characterize Mr. Hobdell making use of the following vocabulary (you may break the given pairs into separate elements and combine them in your own way). Justify your choice by giving facts from the story: “Industrious but dull, hard-working and talented, clever but slow, absent-minded but amusing, absent-minded but able to concentrate, quick-witted and resourceful, kind but strong willed.”

4. Summary of the story in one sentence by analogy.

The story you read last week, “Sam?s Boy”, is a story about an orphan boy who embarrasses people by calling them “father” and “mother” and who finally gets adopted by a kind elderly couple, after a series of amusing incidents.

Give a one-sentence summary of the story “Uncle Theo” according to the given pattern above.

5. A comparison of two literary texts for similarities and differences of life collisions.

Explain whether the human situation presented in this story has anything to do with the one given in S. Maugham?s story “The Ant and the Grasshopper ”.

6. Listening, and summarizing the text-based questions.

Listen to the text on the CD (“Teachers and Actors”) and answer the following questions:

a) What are the qualities of an actor a teacher needs to become a professional?

b) What are the means a teacher employs to make his approach more effective?

c) What are the differences between the work of a teacher and that of an of an actor?

d) What qualities can prevent a good teacher from becoming an actor?

7. Explanatory monologue the statement associated with ethical issues of a literary text and to specific parts of the text for listening.

Would you like to have Theo Hobdell for a teacher? Explain, why. Try to be objective: give your arguments and counter-arguments.

And in this kind of exercises, causal transitions are to be used. They are:

Table 4 - Causal transitions

Causal transitions: These transitions signal cause/effect and reason/result etc.
Cause/Reason:	Condition:
for the (simple) reason that, being that, for, in view of (the fact), in as much as, to (the fact), etc.	on (the) condition (that), in case, in the event that, if,unless, only if, even if, provided that, providing that, as/so long as, given that, granting (that), etc.
Purpose:	Consequence:
for the purpose of, in the hope that, for fear that, so that, to the end that, in order to, so etc.	under those circumstances, then, in that case, if not, that being the case, etc.
Effect/Result:
as a result (of this), consequently, hence, so, for this reason, therefore, because (of this), thus, in consequence, accordingly, as a consequence, so much (so) that, so that, etc.

And here are the examples of formation of skills of monologue speech on the basis of gradually coming partial information.

The peculiarity of this type of practice is the absence of a single coherent text, giving the cue to a language material and topic. Therefore, at these kind of lessons the information should be given in small portions in a number of tasks in the form of small communication statements, series of questions, sets of key phrases, etc. Each passage interprets one aspect of the problem, and instructions for assignments contribute to linking disparate parts of information on certain communicative intentions. This type of lessons are useful at the upper - intermediate level of teaching English for the students of senior grades as introduction when moving to a new topic. On these kinds of lessons, students get acquainted with basic terms and issues within the topic, e.g. with some terminology or with a set of necessary lexical means. As an introduction, this type of activity is preceded by training, having the main purpose of vocabulary enlargement on specific topics. Introductory classes help to use familiar vocabulary when discussing new issues. In addition, this type of training is useful when due to certain reasons, students had no homework.

The aim of these type of lessons is to develop an explanatory remarks, such as the ability to give listeners an idea about an object or phenomenon, to oppose the arguments and counter-arguments, to formulate a logical conclusion.

Leading operations: selection, matching, combining, the adoption of semantic solution, generalization. Structure of the lesson.

The aim of the lesson is to leach you to establish associations between processes and activities involved in research work, on the one hand, and various ethical problems a scientist has to face, on the other hand.

1. The production of information and its sum in one sentence.

Science is not a set of findings, but a search for them. Those who think that science is ethically neutral confuse the findings of science, which are, with the activity of science, which is not. Human search and research is a learning by steps, of which none is final. The mistakes of one generation are rungs in the ladder, no less than their correction by the next.

2. Multiple choice to complete the previous passage and filling the missing logical link.

Can the above-given piece of reasoning serve as an introduction to any of the following conclusions? Choose the most logical one and reproduce the whole utterance, beginning with a one-sentence summary of the above text and supplying the missing logical links so as to arrive at one of the conclusions below.

a)... Science may completely alter the nature of human life.

b)... Scholars should/can?t be held responsible for the consequences of the application of their discoveries.

c)... Science must prize the search above the discovery.

d)... A community of scholars must be a democracy.

e)... There is no room for individual research nowadays.

f) ... Communication among scientists involves challenge without prejudice.

g)... Scholars should/needn?t concentrate their efforts on discoveries of immediate utility.

h)... One can?t be a true scholar without an established system of moral values.

3. The transformation of the explanatory statements due to the change semantic tasks.

Philosophers believe that there are only four basic types of human activity: constructive, cognitive, evaluating, and communicative. Most actual activities represent a certain interaction among all, or most, of these. Thus, the task of a technologist is mainly that of constructing things. Yet he is invariably involved in cognitive activity, since he has to reason out the way in which scientific knowledge can be made practical use of. He also evaluates the would-be product from the viewpoint of its utility, aesthetic value, etc. And he is bound to communicate, since nothing can be mass-produced by an individual. The same four types of activity are involved in the process of artistic creation, but their respective functions and interrelations are different

Explain the structure of research from the viewpoint of the activities involved.

4. The interpretation of a given postulate.

“Communication is not merely the desire and the responsibility of a scholar, it is his discipline.”

a) Explain why communication means all these to a scholar.

b) There are only two ways of communication for a scholar: reading and speaking. He publishes his discoveries and he teaches them in the classroom. Can a scholar be satisfied with only one of these methods (which one, then?) or does he need both? Explain.

5. Expanding the concept by listing essential characteristics on the basis of their selection of previous pieces of information and language independent formulation of missing information.

What are the qualities of a true scholar? Which of them are the main ones?

6. The formulation of an individual point of view on the problem and its justification through an objective comparison of arguments for and against.

The rapid growth of science has brought about the necessity of narrow specialization. Yet some people believe that narrow specialization may hinder sharing of ideas and may exercise a harmful effect on a scholar?s personality.

Express your own opinion. See if some of the following statements reflect your point of view:

There is no alternative to narrow specialization; there can?t be general knowledge nowadays; it?s unrealistic to expect a scholar to be interested in other fields but his own; a true scientist is above all an expert in a narrow field; the languages of particular disciplines cannot be understood by non-experts. Narrow specialization should not exclude the possibility of a wider outlook; it?s impossible to understand particular sciences in complete isolation; the growth of interdisciplinary subjects is a counter-balance to narrow specialization; it?s necessary to look upon one?s subject from the outside.

7. Generalizing explanatory statement from the perspective of the ethical aspect of the discussed problems.

So, to sum it all up, a scientist is faced with certain responsibilities. He may be held responsible to society for the practical consequences of his discoveries....

Explain what other moral responsibilities a scholar has to face. How must ethical values determine his behavior?

Example exercises on the formation of skills of retrospectivvely evaluating the author?s idea within “home - reading”.

This type of practice is a retrospective summarizing of the analysis of the read art works of various lengths (stories, novels, interconnected series of short stories). As features of this types of lessons we can consider the fact that, although they are trained to identify the author, due to the large amount of work studied, reading art works in the class is almost eliminated. Students do not read the text as much, as they discuss the information read at home. The text can serve as merely to illustrate the fairness of certain postulates that requires searching skills and screening reading. The job sequence and the lexical models, offered in most of them, are designed, as with any other classes, to promote consistency statements, to prevent the appearance of errors to activate the RAM. And yet in the practice of this type we are not developing new skills of speaking. First of all, these classes provide a review works under a single perspective . Therefore it is sometimes advisable to carry out in succession two or three classes of the same type to provide a retrospective analysis of works from different points of view. Accordingly, we give examples of two classes of this type (classes are built on the material of art of Charles Dickens and is designed for two hours each at the upper-intermediate level of learning foreign languages).

The first lesson teaches to evaluate the role of building plot in revealed and intent of the author. The second lesson teaches evaluate the author?s perception of reality and its influence on the implementation plan. Such sessions can be conducted in groups, where students read different novels by the same author. For all such studies is the most characteristic intellectual operations the adoption of semantic solutions and generalizations.

The structure of the first lesson

The aim of the lesson is to teach you to treat the plot as part of the writer?s intention. You are to explain its structure and to point out its merits and limitations in order to arrive at a conclusion concerning the importance of the plot for the author?s purpose.

1. The answers to the questions that precede analysis.

Is the plot made out of many incidents or few? Are the incidents arranged in a natural sequence or is the order inverted for dramatic effect? Are the incidents taken from real life? Are they invented but probable, barely possible, or impossible? Do the incidents involve physical action, or inner (moral) struggle? Are the incidents mainly comic or pathetic? Which of the following adjectives describe(s) the plot best: simple, commonplace, trivial, quiet, interesting, clever, dramatic, thrilling, melodramatic, romantic, highly imaginative?

2. Conformity assessment of the plot of the requirements and the argument point of view examples or comments.

A plot is a narrative of events arranged in time-sequence, each event being caused by some other. The element of surprise or mystery is of great importance. To appreciate a surprise or mystery, part of the reader?s mind should be left behind, brooding, while the other part goes marching on. The plot-maker expects us to remember what has happened, and we expect him to leave no loose ends.

Does the novel satisfy these requirements? Provide laconic evidence.

3. Analysis of the plot by the proposed components.

Nearly every plot contains the following elements: the introduction, serving principally to acquaint us with the preliminaries of the main action, or the attending circumstances.

Somewhere near the beginning we discover the inciting force, which definitely begins the entanglement, i.e. the conflict between the opposing forces. The climax (the turning point) is the moment when the threads of the narrative have achieved a point of supreme tension (sometimes there can be one grand climax and several minor climaxes, i.e. a number of dramatic moments when the reader?s interest is greatly quickened). Then comes the denouement (i.e. the falling action, the resolution of the conflict). A plot may consist of two or more parallel lines running alongside and occasionally crossing each other.

Explain how many lines are discoverable in the plot of the novel. Speak of the abovementioned elements of the plot. Show where these different lines (if you have found more than one) cross each other.

4. Commenting on some of the properties of this plot, the explanation justice his point of view with examples.

It has been said that Dickens? world is terribly lop-sided and incomplete. Even if we ignore what it leaves out, there is much to be said against the things that are included in it.

a) Does Dickens introduce any episodes that are not vital to the development of the plot? What do you think his reasons were for introducing them? Do they add to the merits of Dickens? novel or to its drawbacks? Explain.

b) “His deliberate pathos, when we can catch him bringing out a handkerchief in readiness for the flood of tears that will shortly follow, may be sickening.” (J.B.Priestley) Are there any passages that are revoltingly sentimental and melodramatic? Or are the sentiment and melodrama so strictly under control that they cease to become weaknesses? Explain.

c) Does Dickens? plotting let the characters develop without doing violence to their nature? ( Are the characters given a fair chance to behave within the frames of the plot in accordance with their nature?) Explain, prove it, provide examples.

In tasks of this type it is sometimes possible to offer any of the items on choice. However, in cases where for the next job care the results of all previous points-namely the so built this lesson, students should be ready to work with all three points, and ask for one at the discretion of the teacher, as they equal difficulties. In addition, the points of the task that have not been tested orally the lesson can be run after him in writing; then the students can to provide selection of one of the items to perform oral.

5. The formulation of the main goal of the author of the work and the choice of episodes, more exactly the purpose of illustrating.

Is the novel written chiefly for the story?s sake, or is it dominated by some other purpose (s)? (e.g., by the purpose of social criticism, of the psychological study of some aspect of human nature, of sharing one?s experience of life, etc.). Formulate the author?s purpose (s). Which episodes, in your opinion, can be treated as the key episodes illustrating the author?s intention? Explain.

6. Summative evaluation of the role of story in revealing the intent of the author. Can the success of Dickens? novel be attributed to his plotting?

In this case, the class includes only one training exercise (the first). It does not require independent language, and is based only on the adoption of semantic solutions. Its role is, on one hand, to anticipate the move analysis, on the other hand, to perform a diagnostic function, showing teacher how can the story from the point of view of its naturalness, composition, and other relatively objective characteristics, reflected in the questions cab be evaluated. Depending on the results of the first assignment the teacher can give more comments, to pay more attention to one or another subsequent assignments. In linguistic terms, the exercise 1 anticipates the others, meanwhile, reports that a certain terminology, which can be useful students in the further evaluation of the role of the plot. Task 4 requires an assessment not of the plot in whole, and certain scenes; but, on the other hand, the role of the episode can be determined only in the context of the whole work. (However, in our case, the consideration of an episode through the prism of a novel need only two points from three: 4 “a” and 4 “c”. But the second paragraph is also needed in the task 4 for further generalization of the role of the plot.)

The structure of the second example lesson.

1. The selection and playback of the part of the critical information, that from the point of view of the learner refers to the analyzed work.

“Any account of Dickens is inadequate. He is the greatest comic novelist in England, but he is also the most truly poetic novelist. So far as we can label him at all he was a fantasist, and he forces us to accept the world he creates by the sheer compelling power of his imagination. It was a hallucinatory imagination, and so long as he remains within the comic and satiric or the melodramatic, he forces us to share the hallucination. His defects are many and yet scarcely matter. He was a great original. He owed something, in his early books particularly, to the 18th century novelists - high spirits, the joy in the rough-and-tumble, the picaresque sequence of events. But he owed much more to himself. To find anything comparable in fiction, his sense of symbolism, the hallucinatory intensity of his imagination, the huge self-soliloquizing monsters he created, we have to go to Dostoevsky...” (W. Allen.)

Which of the above-mentioned characteristics are applicable to the novel discussed?

2. The answers to a series of questions that comprise the overall preliminary assessment and the creativity of the author at a given angle of view.

Is the author emotional? Does he treat the situation and his characters objectively? Is there more feeling than thought in his book, or vice versa? Does he understand human nature? Does he regard his characters with affection? Are his ideals high? What aspects of his art do you admire: his artistry at plot construction, his ability to present unique characters, his vivid manner of description, his being sympathetic, his ability to put social evils to ridicule, his ability to amuse the readers?

3. Concise wording manners of the author?s letters and the author?s reflection in it based on the attitude of the proposed model.

Galsworthy?s manner of writing has been characterized as removed, reticent, quiet, balanced. His style undoubtedly reflects his approach to the characters, and thus - to general problems of man in society. Galsworthy takes sides, yet shows mercy to both sets of sinners. He attacks a Forsyte as a social being, yet shows compassion and often a good deal of respect for the human being.

Compare Galsworthy?s manner of writing to that of Dickens. How can Dickens? manner of writing be summed up in a few words? What are the sins he is apt to forgive and those he would never forgive?

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