Linguistic image of flora in modern English language discourse

The size and breadth of an object are described by the adjectives huge and wide in the following sentence: Now it is as if she can hear the pendulum in the air in front of her: that huge golden bob, as wide across as a barrel, swinging on and on, never stopping (All the Light We Cannot See, p. 136). Marie imagines a pendulum - the bob is huge and wide.

When describing interior of houses, Marie can identify several characteristics of pieces of furniture, e.g. He drags open big, low drawers; he jangles dozens of key rings (All the Light We Cannot See, p. 12). Here, she describes a chest of drawers. The drawers are big, and those which her father is opening at the moment are located below, just near the floor.

Marie-Laure can also describe several objects at once, e.g. She imagines Jules Verne's characters walking along the streets, chatting in shops; a half-inch-tall baker slides speck-sized loaves in and out of his ovens (All the Light We Cannot See, p. 42). In the sentence above, the girl imagines a baker who is half-inch tall and a loaf of bread which is the size of a speck. The baker's height is stated precisely - it is half an inch, because this baker appears in her imagination and in view of the fact that she used to see people of various heights when she was sighted, now she can measure in her mind what the height of a man in a baker's shop may be. Loaves of bread remind her of specks.

Within one sentence, the blinded girl can describe three objects, e.g. Then a bustling far below, the heavy shoes of Madame Manec climbing flights of narrow, curving steps, her smoker's lungs coming closer, third floor, fourth - how tall is this house? (All the Light We Cannot See, p. 85) At first, she describes Madame Manec's shoes - they are heavy. Marie may judge it from the way Madame Manec climbs the stairs - probably, slowly and with difficulties. Then Marie describes the stairs - it is a narrow staircase that leads up to the fourth floor. Afterwards, the girl describes the height of the house - it is a high four-storied building.

The quality and material of the objects are described by various adjectives, e.g. Its streets are empty, its streets are static (All the Light We Cannot See, p. 37). In this sentence, the adjectives empty and static describe the streets of the city where no people and no cars can be seen.

When Marie-Laure goes blind, her father builds a miniature of their neighborhood so she can memorize it by touch and navigate her way home. Therefore, in the novel there are descriptions how she manipulates with the wooden objects, e.g. Usually Marie-Laure can solve the wooden puzzle boxes her father creates for her birthdays (All the Light We Cannot See, p. 37). Being blinded, she can feel the material by touch, but she relies on her previous knowledge of how a wooden object looks like. It is true about the following sentence as well: The first is a lacquered wooden cube constructed entirely from sliding panels (All the Light We Cannot See, p. 54).

So, Marie-Laure describes the same visual features of objects as sighted people do; she mentions the colour, shape, size, and quality of an object, and she identifies several objects at once with their characteristics. Further in the work, we are going to consider how she understands spatial relation of distance between the objects by analyzing the lexical units encoding it.

2.1.2 Lexical units expressing spatial relations of distance

Lexical units expressing spatial relations of distance include phrases with word near, far, away, down, above, long, close. In the speech of the blinded girl, the distance is always indicated vaguely, approximately using the above words because without sight it is difficult for her to identify how much is the distance between the objects perceived. There is only one context where Marie-Laure measures the distance between herself and the birds singing above her precisely, e.g. When the wind is down and nobody is running an engine nearby, Marie-Laure can stand outside the Gallery of Zoology and hear them: a mile-high purr (All the Light We Cannot See, p. 29). In this sentence, she measures the distance as one inch. This sentence shows that though she relies on hearing in understanding the distance at which the birds are from her, she still relies on her previous knowledge of this measurement - she knew and saw how one-inch distance looks like. She has obviously seen when she was sighted how far the objects must be situated from each other to treat the distance as an inch.

All the other indications of distance are approximate. She uses the phrases with words near, far, long and close to measure the distance approximately, e.g. When she opens her bedroom window, she hears no screams, no explosions, only the calls of birds that her great-uncle calls gannets, and the sea, and the occasional throb of an airplane as it passes far overhead (All the Light We Cannot See, p. 98). The sound of the birds singing is somewhere overhead, but due to the fact that she cannot see and also because the birds are moving objects - they are flying, it is difficult for her to identify the distance to them.

In the most cases, the girl measures the distance not in inches, miles, meters or other forms of measurement, but she uses her own system of measures drawing on concrete experience such as the number of footsteps, blocks of flats, trees and hedges that separate one territory from another etc., e.g. “It's far, Papa. Six blocks, at least” (All the Light We Cannot See, p. 38). In this sentence, Marie-Laure explains to her father where the building is located - six blocks from their house which is far according to her estimations.

Marie-Laure often needs to employ the other senses such as touch and hearing to measure the distance she used to see earlier. Sometimes she relies on hearing, as for example in the sentence Something rattling softly, very close (All the Light We Cannot See, p.12). The word rattling shows that first she heard the sound of a moving object, and then she measured the distance to it drawing on her previous experience of sight and then she concluded that it was very close. She also relies on touch, e.g. A glass of water is too near, too far… (All the Light We Cannot See, p. 31), where she is seeking a glass of water.

Moreover, Marie-Laure measures the distance by walking, e.g. When she declares that she can walk no farther, her father carries her off the road, traveling uphill through mustard flowers until they reach a field a few hundred yards from a small farmhouse (All the Light We Cannot See, p. 183). She uses her own body as a measurement apparatus - as soon as she covers a certain distance, she can walk, or she can count the number of footsteps, or her tiredness becomes an indicator of a particular distance.

The phrases with adverb away may also provide precise or approximate distance. Again, Marie-Laure fails to measure a precise distance; she can do it only when she knows it for sure, as illustrated by the following example: She can smell the cedars in the Jardin des Plantes a quarter mile away (All the Light We Cannot See, p. 41). From this sentence, it is clear that the girl knows that the garden is located a quarter of a mile away from their house and she knows that there are cedars there. Since she has been there and has seen the trees she is talking about, she can now recognize the smell of the cedars she is familiar with.

In most instances of using the phrases with away, the distance is measured approximately, e.g. And to Marie-Laure, her pockets lined with sand, her face aglow from wind, the occupation seems, for a moment, a thousand miles away (All the Light We Cannot See, p. 157). In this sentence, the phrase a thousand miles away means a long distance without specifying the figures. The numeral thousand does not literally mean the figure of 1000; it is rather a hyperbolic expression because no one really counted the amount of miles where the girl imagines herself to be.

Marie-Laure often uses her body as a starting point for orientation, she identifies the distance more often herself and the other objects, e.g. Just a high tide, one block away and six stories below, lapping at the base of a city hall (All the Light We Cannot See, p. 12). She finds herself in her house and contemplates about what is going on in the city hall, the location of that hall stands clearly in her memory - one block away from the house she is now in and six stories below.

Even when she portrays objects in her imagination, her own body is the starting point for identifying the location and measuring the distance, e.g. She imagines the radio equipment high above her: microphone, transceiver, all those dials and switches and cables (All the Light We Cannot See, p. 182).

So, being blinded, it is difficult to measure the distance between the objects precisely. Therefore, in the speech of the blinded girl, lexical units describing the distance approximately dominate.

2.2 Lexical units expressing synesthetic perception

Lexical units expressing synesthetic perception are represented in the novel by the units of auditory-visual synesthesia, and those expressing olfactory-visual synesthesia. Synesthesia is the process in which stimulation of one sensory modality leads to automatic, involuntary experiences in a second sensory modality.

2.2.1 Lexical units expressing auditory-visual synesthesia

Lexical units expressing auditory-visual synesthesia demonstrate how visual perception is replaced by hearing, e.g. Marie-Laure hears that the diamond is pale green and as big as a coat button. In this sentence, the predicate hears refers to auditory perception, while the adjectives pale green and big show the capacity of the person to differentiate colors and size visually.

Marie-Laure relies on hearing to describe the same features of objects such as colour, shape, size, and quality of objects and distance between the objects. In the majority of cases, these examples are used closer to the end of the novel. When the years pass, the memories of the sight may gradually evaporate, and the girl is looking for another sensory modality to help her orient in the surrounding world. Hearing becomes crucial in her life and with time relying on her memories and experience of being sighted, she can identify the colour, shape, size and temperature of perceived referents.

As for colour perception, Marie-Laure associates the colours with some specific objects and events. The names of colours become symbolic in the novel. When she lost her sight, everything turned grey for her and she said: Grey faces and grey quiet and a grey nervous terror hanging over the queue at the bakery and the only color in the world briefly kindled when Etienne climbs the stairs to the attic, knees cracking, to read one more string of numbers into the ether, to send another of Madame Ruelle's messages, to play a song (All the Light We Cannot See, p. 51). This fragment starts with description of different objects which she perceives as grey. But when she describes her uncle Etienne as he climbs the stairs, reads the book and plays songs, she perceives all these sounds and they make her grey world transform into magenta, aquamarine and gold in the passage that follows: That little attic bustling with magenta and aquamarine and gold for five minutes, and then the radio switches off, and the grey rushes back in, and her uncle stumps back down the stairs (All the Light We Cannot See, p. 52). In such a way, the music and songs evoke various images in her mind that give colours to everything around.

When the Nazis occupied Paris, the bombings started and many Parisians were killed. This period is associated with various shades of red in the mind of Marie-Laure. Though she has never seen bombings or murders, she imagines her house turning scarlet as illustrated in the following example: She scrambles upstairs, stumbling, shouting, “Uncle! Uncle!” the whole house turning scarlet in her mind, roof turning to smoke, flames chewing through walls (All the Light We Cannot See, p. 193). There was no fire in the house, but the sounds of bombing outside made her mind create the images of fire.

Shootings and explosions are also associated with crimson colour, e.g. Then come drums, cymbals, the gongs of explosion, drawing a crimson lattice over the roof. The lull is ending (All the Light We Cannot See, p. 178). Violent sounds of war in the city make her imagine a crimson lattice which is being drawn over the roof of the house.

Identifying the shape of an object relying on hearing is impossible, that is why there are no precise descriptions of them. Rather, Marie uses comparative structures where she describes the shape of one object comparing it to another, e.g. A wooden step complains beneath his weight; it sounds to her like a small animal being crushed (All the Light We Cannot See, p. 194).

Measuring the size, Marie-Laure analyzes how the sound is perceived. In most cases, she measures the size of rooms, apartments, halls and similar enclosed spaces where she comes in, e.g. The labyrinth of Saint-Malo has opened onto a portal of sound larger than anything she has ever experienced. Larger than the Jardin des Plantes, than the Seine, larger than the grandest galleries of the museum. She did not imagine it properly; she did not comprehend the scale (All the Light We Cannot See, p.149). This fragment demonstrates how Marie perceived the sounds in the labyrinth of Saint-Malo. The acoustic peculiarities of this sound enabled her to measure the size of the labyrinth - it is really spacious. She instantly compares it with the other places where she used to perceive sounds and measure the size - the Jardin des Plantes, the Seine, the grandest galleries of the museum where her father worked. In fact, she used to visit those places in Paris when she was sighted and she remembers what they look like, and now being in a new place she compares its acoustic peculiarities to those in familiar places.

Being blinded, Marie-Laure understands all the specifics how the sounds may echo in various places, and the sentence that follows demonstrates that due to the echo of their voices she is able to measure the height of the wall - Voices echo off a high wall (All the Light We Cannot See, p. 151).

Till the end of the book, she is able to listen and perceive the characteristics of several referents at once, e.g. She hears Madame Manec's raspy breathing, and the deep sounding of the sea among the rocks, and the calls of someone down the beach echoing off the high walls (All the Light We Cannot See, p.149). In this sentence, the predicate hears refers to auditory perception and then she analyzes three sounds - Madame Manec's breathing, the deep sounding of the sea among the rocks, and the calls of someone down the beach echoing off the high walls. Even though she cannot see, she can clearly perceive the sea, the rocks, and the beach - these landmarks are located in a panoramic view as the word down implies. Then somewhere on the beach there are at least two people talking loudly and there is a high building that echoes off their voices. Madam Manec is near the girl because she can see her breathing. Obviously, they are walking fast along the seaside, because Madame's breathing is raspy.

Perceiving the temperature, the capacity of hearing is activated, e.g. Some midnights, her room grows so cold that she half believes she can hear frost settling onto the floor (All the Light We Cannot See, p.168).

Using auditory perception, Marie-Laure can also identify several objects or several characteristics at once, e.g. From somewhere comes the sound of fire: the sound of dried roses being crumbled in a fist (All the Light We Cannot See, p.162). In this sentence, she perceives fire and dried rose being crumbled. Moreover, the perception and analyzing of several objects may be gradual, e.g. Then she hears it's as big as a matchbook. A day later it's blue and as big as a baby's fist (All the Light We Cannot See, p. 138).

2.2.2 Lexical units expressing olfactory-visual synesthesia

Lexical units expressing olfactory-visual synesthesia demonstrate how smell may be combined with visual perceptions, e.g. They smell of stale bread, of stuffy living rooms crammed with dark titanic Breton furnishings (p. 161). In this sentence, the predicate smell introduces the olfactory perception and then it evokes visual images such as dark furniture in a living room. As in the previous group, these lexical units demonstrate that the blinded girl adapted herself to replace the sight with smell and describe the same objects as the sighted people do. Relying on smell, she can identify the colour, size and shape of the objects.

As for the colour, there are no names of colours that indicate the characteristics precisely. Sometimes the noun colour is mentioned in the contexts of olfactory perception without any specifications, e.g. The whole kitchen would fill with their smell and color (All the Light We Cannot See, p.156).

Occasionally, the colour may be named in the contexts of olfactory perception, but in the speech of the blinded girl the names of colours are not basic but some peripheral and vague, e.g. The perfume of peaches makes a bright ruddy cloud (All the Light We Cannot See, p.173). In this sentence, the colour is bright ruddy and it comes from the perfume of peaches. Since bright ruddy has also the meaning of healthy and rosy relating to a young person's complexion, this colour visually resembles that of a peach/ So, being unable to see, Marie-Laure perceived the smell of the peaches and that reminded her of a ruddy complexion. The visual image is not clear, that is why she perceives it as a cloud.

As for the size and shape of the objects, Marie-Laure in her perceptions compares new objects to the familiar ones, e.g. The air on the way to Madame Ruelle's bakery smells of myrtle and magnolia and verbena; wisteria wines erupt in blossom; everywhere hang arcades and curtains and pendants of flowers (All the Light We Cannot See, p. 174). This sentence demonstrates that she can easily identify the type of a flower by its smell. Moreover, she compares the smell to a curtain - it may cover the way like curtains do.

When she describes Madame Manec's cooking, she compares her to a moving wall of rosebushes - the pleasant odors of her stews and cakes travel with her wherever she goes: They clomp together through the narrow streets, Marie-Laure's on back of Madame's apron, following the odors of her stews and cakes; in such moments Madame seems like a great moving wall of rosebushes, thorny and fragrant and crackling with bees (All the Light We Cannot See, p. 156).

Apart from describing people and objects, Marie-Laure manages to elaborate some symbolic ideas - the smel of grandeur and the smell of war.

Inside the house, she feels the smell of grandeur: Eleven winding steps lead to the second floor, which is full of the smells of faded grandeur: an old sewing room, a former maid's room (All the Light We Cannot See, p. 99).

There is a specific smell of war in the novel created by Marie-Laure. That is a combination of fire, smoke and some dust, e.g. Marie-Laure hesitates over the open door, smelling the fires from outside and the clammy, almost opposite smell washing up from the bottom (All the Light We Cannot See, p. 92). This example prompts that there should be something dirty in that smell of war because it may be washed up. Moreover, the combination of various smells that are associated with a city market contribute to the smell of war in the novel, e.g. With it come the scents of salt and hay and fish markets and distant marshes and absolutely nothing that smells to her of war (All the Light We Cannot See, p. 87).

She also uses the comparisons with the word like to describe one object through its similarity to another, e.g.

His whisper comes in her left ear; his breath smells like crushed insects (All the Light We Cannot See, p. 169). In this sentence, the girl compares the breath of a man to the smell of crushed insects.

This comparison may seem strange for a common person because it is difficult to imagine what the insects may smell when they are crushed. But for the girl the experience of manipulating the insects may be really closer than communication with various people. In the next sentence, the comparisons are more common: the air smells of wet grain and hedge trimmings - The air smells like wet grain and hedge trimmings; in the lulls between their footfalls, she can hear a deep, nearly subsonic roar (All the Light We Cannot See, p. 68).

2.3 Comparative characteristic of lexical units expressing perception based on sight and synthetic perception

Refering to the text of the book “All the light we cannot see” by Anthony Doerr and conducted analysis, all subgroups of lexical units expressing blinded person's perception were studied by means of statistic analysis.

The results provided in the Diagram 1 show that lexical units expressing perception based on sight prevail on those expressing synesthetic perception (with the score 83,74% to 16.26%).

Moreover, statistic analysis of the major group shows that lexical units denoting spatial relations of distance numerously exceed other subgroups (with the score of 123 units).

Thus, it must be concluded that lexical units expressing spatial relations of distance prevail in speech of blinded people.

CONCLUSIONS ON CHAPTER 2

Having analyzed the peculiarities of verbal representation of the world by the blinded girl, we singled out two groups of lexical units: (1) Lexical units expressing perception based on sight; (2) Lexical units expressing synesthetic perception.

Visual perception of the world by the blinded girl, Marie-Laure LeBlanc, is not based on the immediate processing of information received from visual sensory modality. In view of the fact that she used to see till the age of six, the units expressing visual perception are based on mental processing of her previously received experience of sight. Throughout the novel, lexical units expressing visual perception describe such basic features of objects as colour, shape, size, and quality as well as the distance between several objects.

Lexical units expressing visual features of objects describe such basic properties as colour, shape, size, and quality. Being unable to use her visual sensory modality, Marie relies greatly on her mental processing of already known visual features of objects she wants to describe. Throughout the text, she mentions the same visual features of objects as sighted people do; they are colour, shape, size, and quality of an object.

In the speech of the blinded girl, the distance is always indicated vaguely, approximately using the above words because without sight it is difficult for her to identify how much is the distance between the objects perceived. However, according to the results of statistic analysis, the stated subgroup of lexical units prevails in speech of blinded girl.

Lexical units expressing synesthetic perception are represented in the novel by the units of auditory-visual synesthesia, and those expressing olfactory-visual synesthesia.

GENERAL CONCLUSIONS

Verbal representation of the surrounding world is an integral part of human life since every person who can speak expresses their perceptions for the purpose of orientation, description, evaluation or other activities they need to perform. English has a great number of lexical units to name the referents we perceive with such sensory modalities as sight, hearing, smell, touch and taste, and the choice of a suitable word depends on the way we categorize the stimuli we perceive.

While sighted people name the referents relying on different senses depending on a particular situation, blinded people describe the world with the words where the sight perception is substituted for the other senses. To explain how the world may be represented verbally by a blinded person, we employed the novel “All the light we cannot see” by Anthony Doerr published in 2015. The book recounts a story of a girl who lost sight at the age of six. When she goes blind, her father builds a miniature of their neighborhood so she can memorize it by touch and navigate her way home. Her ability to navigate the world and live with her condition enables her to survive the devastation of World War II.

Having analyzed the peculiarities of verbal representation of the world by the blinded girl, we singled out two groups of lexical units: (1) Lexical units expressing perception based on sight; (2) Lexical units expressing synesthetic perception.

Visual perception of the world by the blinded girl, Marie-Laure LeBlanc, is not based on the immediate processing of information received from visual sensory modality. In view of the fact that she used to see till the age of six, the units expressing visual perception are based on mental processing of her previously received experience of sight. Throughout the novel, lexical units expressing visual perception describe such basic features of objects as colour, shape, size, and quality as well as the distance between several objects.

Lexical units expressing visual features of objects describe such basic properties as colour, shape, size, and quality. Being unable to use her visual sensory modality, Marie relies greatly on her mental processing of already known visual features of objects she wants to describe. Throughout the text, she mentions the same visual features of objects as sighted people do; they are colour, shape, size, and quality of an object.

In the speech of the blinded girl, the distance is always indicated vaguely, approximately using the above words because without sight it is difficult for her to identify how much is the distance between the objects perceived.

Lexical units expressing synesthetic perception are represented in the novel by the units of auditory-visual synesthesia, and those expressing olfactory-visual synesthesia. Synesthesia is the process in which stimulation of one sensory modality leads to automatic, involuntary experiences in a second sensory modality.

According to the results of statictic analysis, lexical units expressing spacial relations of distance prevail in speech of blinded girl.

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47. Marks, Lawrence E. "Weak Synesthesia in Perception and Language." Oxford Handbooks Online. 2013-12-16. Oxford University Press.

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LIST OF DICTIONARIES

59. Encyclopedia Britannica [Electronic resource]. - Access mode: https://www.britannica.com - Access date: [20.11.2016].

60. Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English [Електронний ресурс]. -- Режим доступу : http://www.ldoceonline.com/ . -- Назва з екрану.

61. Merriam-Webster Dictionary [Електронний ресурс]. -- Режим доступу : http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/time . -- Назва з екрану.

62. Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary : Seventh Edition. -- Oxford : Oxford University Press, 2007. -- 1780 p.

63. Macmillan Dictionary [Electronic resource]. - Access mode: http://www.macmillandictionary.com - Access date: [20.11.2016].

64. The Penguin Dictionary of Literary Terms, p. 384.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIVE LITERATURE

65. Doerr A. All the Light We Cannot See / Anthony Doerr. - New York: Scribner, 2014. - 544 p.

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